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1、-剑桥雅思真题3 Test1 三篇文章-第 9 页C3 TEST 1 PASSAGE 1:The rocket from east to westA The concept of the rocket, or rather the mechanism behind the idea of propellingan object into the air, has been around for well over two thousand years. However, it wasnt until the discovery of the reaction principle, which
2、was the key to spacetravel and so represents one of the great milestones in the history of scientificthought, that rocket techn0108y was able to develop. Not only did it solve aproblem that had intrigued man for ages, but, more importantly, it literally openedthe door to exploration of the universe.
3、BAn intellectual breakthrough, brilliant though it may be, does not automaticallyensure that the transition is made from theory to practice. Despite the fact thatrockets had been used sporadically for several hundred years, they remained arelatively minor artefact of civilization until the twentieth
4、 century. Prodigious effortsaccelerated during two world wars, were required before the technology ofprimitive rocketry could be translated into the reality of sophisticated astronauts. Itis strange that the rocket was generally ignored by writers of fiction to transport theirheroes to mysterious re
5、alms beyond the Earth, even though it had been commonlyused in fireworks displays in China since the thirteenth century. The reason is thatnobody associated the reaction principle with the idea of travelling through spaceto a neighboring world. CA simple analogy can help us to understand how a rocke
6、t operates. It is much likea machine gun mounted on the rear of a boat. In reaction to the backward dischargeof bullets, the gun, and hence the boat, move forwards. A rocket motors bulletsare minute, high-speed particles produced by burning propellants in a suitablechamber. The reaction to the eject
7、ion of these small particles causes the rocket tomove forwards. There is evidence that the reaction principle was applied practicallywell before the rocket was invented. In his Noctes Atticae or Greek Nights, AulusGellius describes the pigeon of Archytas, an invention dating back to about 360BC. Cyl
8、indrical in shape, made of wood, and hanging from string, It was moved to and fro by steam blowing out from small exhaust ports at either end. The reactionto the discharging steam provided the bird with motive power. DThe Invention of rockets Is linked inextricably with the invention of black powder
9、.Most historians of techn0108Y credit the ChInese with its discovery. They base theirbellef on studies of Chinese writings or on the notebooks of,early Europeans whosettled in or made long visits to China to study its history rand civilisation. It isprobable that, some tIme in the tenth century, bla
10、ck powder was first compoundedfrom its basic ingredients of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. But this does not meanthat it was immediately used to propel rockets. By the thirteenth century, powder-propelled fire arrows had become rather common. The Chinese relied on this typeof technological develop
11、ment to produce incendiary projectiles of many sorts, explosive grenades and possibly cannons to repel their enemies. One such wewas the basket of fire or, as directly translated from Chinese, the arrows like Ileopards. The 0.7 metre-long arrows, each with a long tube of gunpowder at anear the point
12、 of each arrow, could be fired from a long, octagonal-shaped bat the same time and had a range of 400 paces. Another weapon was the arrca flying sabre, which could be fired from crossbows. The rocket, placed in a position to other rocket-propelled arrows, was designed to increase the ran! small iron
13、 weight was attached to the l.5m bamboo shaft, just below the feai to increase the arrows stability by moving the centre of gravity to a position tothe rocket. At a similar time, the Arabs had developed the egg which moveburns. This egg was apparently full of gunpowder and stabilized by a l.5m. Iwas
14、 fired using two rockets attached to either side of this tail.EIt was not until the eighteenth century that Europe became seriously interested inthe possibilities of using the rocket itself as a weapon of war andother weapons. Prior to this, rockets were used only in pyrotechnic disincentive for the
15、 more aggressive use of rockets came not from within the Europeancontinent but from far-away India, whose leaders had built up a corps of rocketeersand used rockets successfully against the British in the late eighteenth century. TheIndian rockets used against the British were described by a British
16、 Captain servingin India as an iron envelope about 200 millimetres long and 40 millimetres indiameter with sharp points at the top and a 3m-long bamboo guiding stick. In theearly nineteenth century the British began to experiment with incendiar: rockets. The British rocket differed from the Indian v
17、ersion in that it was completelyencased in a stout, iron cylinder, terminating in a conical head, measuring one metrein diameter and having a stick almost five metres long and constructedway that it could be firmly attached to the body of the rocket. The Americansdeveloped a rocket, complete with it
18、s own launcher, to use against the Mexicans inthe mid-nineteenth century. A long cylindrical tube was propped up by two sticksand fastened to the top of the launcher, thereby allowing the rockets to be insertedand lit from the other end. However, the results were sometimes not thatimpressive as the
19、behaviour of the rockets in flight was less than predictable.FSince then, there have been huge developments in rocket technology, oftendevastating results in the forum of war. Nevertheless, the modern daysprograms owe their success to the humble beginnings of those in previous centwho developed the
20、foundations of the reaction principle. Who knows what willbe like in the future?C3 TEST1 PASSAGE 2:The risks of cigarette smokeDiscovered in the early 1800s and named nicotianine, the oily essence now called nicotine is the main active ingredient of tobacco. Nicotine, however, is only a small compon
21、ent of cigarette smoke, which contains more than 4,700 chemical compounds, including 43 cancer-causing substances. In recent times, scientific research has been providing evidence that years of cigarette smoking vastly increases the risk of developin3 fatal medical conditions, In addition to being r
22、esponsible for more than 85 per cent of lung cancers, smoking is associated with cancers of, amongst others, the mouth, stomach and kidneys, and is thought to cause about 14 per cent of leukemia and cervical cancers. In 1990, smoking caused more than 84,000 deaths, mainly resulting from such problem
23、s as pneumonia, bronchitis and influenza. Smoking, it is believed, is responsible for 30 per cent of all deaths from cancer and clearly represents the most important preventable cause of cancer in countries like the United States today.Passive smoking, the breathing in of the side-stream smoke from
24、the burning 0f tobacco between puffs or of the smoke exhaled by a smoker, also causes a serious health risk. A report published in 1992 by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) emphasized the health dangers, especially from side-stream smoke. This type of smoke contains more, smaller particle
25、s and is therefore more likely to be deposited deep in the lungs. On the basis of this report, the EPA has classified environmental tobacco smoke in the highest risk category for causing cancer.As an illustration of the health risks, in the case of a married couple where one partner is a smoker and
26、one a non-smoker, the latter is believed to have a 30 per cent higher risk of death from heart disease because of passive smoking. The risk of lunf3 cancer also increases over the years of exposure and the figure jumps to 80 per cent if the spouse has been smoking four packs a day for 90 years. It h
27、as been calculated that 17 per cent of cases of lung cancer can be attributed to high levels of exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke during childhood and adolescence.A more recent study by researchers at the University of California at San Francisco (UCSF) has shown that second-hand cigarette smoke
28、 does more harm to non-smokers than to smokers. Leaving aside the philosophical question of whether anyone should have to breathe someone elses cigarette smoke, the report suggests that the smoke experienced by many people in their daily lives is enough to produce substantial adverse effects on a pe
29、rsons heart and lungs. The report, published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (AMA), was based on the researchers own earlier research but also includes a review of studies over the past few years. The American Medical Association represents about half of all US doctors and is a st
30、rong opponent of smoking. The study suggests that people who smoke cigarettes are continua fly damaging their cardiovascular system, which adapts in order to compensate for the effects of smoking. It further states that people who do not smoke do not have the benefit of their system adapting to the
31、smoke inhalation. Consequently, the effects of passive smoking are far greater on non-smokers than on smokers.This report emphasizes that cancer is not caused by a single element in cigarette smoke; harmful effects to health are caused by many components. Carbon monoxide, for example, competes with
32、oxygen in red blood cells and interferes with the bloods ability to deliver life-giving oxygen to the heart. Nicotine and other toxins in cigarette smoke activate small blood cells called platelets, which increases the likelihood of blood clots, thereby affecting blood circulation throughout the bod
33、y.The researchers criticize the practice of some scientific consultants who work with the tobacco industry for assuming that cigarette smoke has the same impact on smokers as it does on non-smokers. They argue that those scientists are underestimating the damage done by passive smoking: and, in supp
34、ort of their recent findings, cite some previous research which points to passive smoking as the cause for between 30,000 and 60,000 deaths from heart attacks each year in the United States. This means that passive smoking is the third most preventable cause of death after active smoking and alcohol
35、-related diseases.The study argues that the type of action needed against passive smoking should be similar to that being taken against illegal drugs and AIDS (SIDA). The UCSF researchers maintain that the simplest and most cost-effective action is to establish smoke-free work places, schools and pu
36、blic places.C3 TEST1 PASSAGE 3:The scientific methodA -Karl Poppers claim that the scientific method is hypothetico-deductiveHypotheses, said Medawar in 1964, are imaginative and inspirational in character; they are adventures of the mind. He was arguing in favour of the position taken by Karl Poppe
37、r in The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1972, 3rd edition) that the nature of scientific method is hypothetico-deductive and not, as is generally believed, inductive.B It is essential that you, as an intending researcher, understand the difference between these two interpretations of the research pr
38、ocess so that you do not become discouraged or begin to suffer from a feeling of cheating or not going about it the right way.C - Explaining the inductive methodThe myth of scientific method is that it is inductive: that the formulation of scientific theory starts with the basic, raw evidence of the
39、 senses - simple, unbiased, unprejudiced observation. Out of these sensory data - commonly referred to as facts generalisations will form. The myth is that from a disorderly array of factual information an orderly, relevant theory will somehow emerge. However, the starting point of induction is an i
40、mpossible one.D - The role of hypotheses in scientific researchThere is no such thing as an unbiased observation. Every act of observation we make is a function of what we have seen or otherwise experienced in the past. All scientific work of an experimental or exploratory nature starts with some ex
41、pectation about the outcome. This expectation is a hypothesis. Hypotheses provide the initiative and incentive for the inquiry and influence the method. It is in the light of an expectation that some observations are held to be relevant and some irrelevant, that one methodology is chosen and others
42、discarded, that some experiments are conducted and others are not. Where is, your naive, pure and objective researcher now?E - The testing of hypothesesHypotheses arise by guesswork, or by inspiration, but having been formulated they can and must be tested rigorously, using the appropriate methodolo
43、gy. If the predictions you make as a result of deducing certain consequences from your hypothesis are not shown to be correct then you discard or modify your hypothesis. If the predictions turn out to be correct then your hypothesis has been supported and may be retained until such time as some furt
44、her test shows it not to be correct. Once you have arrived at your hypothesis, which is a product of your imagination, you then proceed to a strictly logical and rigorous process, based upon deductive argument hence the term hypothetico-deductive. F - Anticipating results before data is collectedSo
45、dont worry if you have some idea of what your results will tell you before you even begin to collect data; there are no scientists in existence who really wait until they have all the evidence in front of them before they try to work out what it might possibly mean. The closest we ever get to this s
46、ituation is when something happens by accident; but even then the researcher has to formulate a hypothesis to be tested before being sure that, for example, a mould might prove to be a successful antidote to bacterial infection.G - How research is done and how it is reportedThe myth of scientific me
47、thod is not only that it is inductive (which we have seen is incorrect) but also that the hypothetico-deductive method proceeds in a step-by-step, inevitable fashion. The hypothetico-deductive method describes the logical approach to much research work, but it does not describe the psychological beh
48、aviour that brings it about. This is much more holistic involving guesses, reworkings, corrections, blind alleys and above all inspiration, in the deductive as well as the hypothetic component -than is immediately apparent from reading the final thesis or published papers. These have been, quite pro
49、perly, organised into a more serial, logical order so that the worth of the output may be evaluated independently of the behavioural processes by which it was obtained. It is the difference, for example between the academic papers with which Crick and Watson demonstrated the structure of the DNA molecule and the fascinat