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1、第五讲 初中英语教学中的分组合作Lecture Five Group Work in Junior English Teaching XIONG Jun（熊俊） School of Foreign Languages, Hubei Engineering University Contents 1.Definition of Group Work 2.Advantages of Group Work 3.Theoretical Bases of Group Work 3.1Cooperative Learning 3.2 Learner-Centered Instruction 3.3 Soc
2、ial Identity Theory 4. Implementation of Group Work 4. 1 The Role of Teacher 4. 2 Grouping of Students 4.3 Group Size 4.4 Student Team Learning 4.5 Jigsaw Jigsaw 4.6 Group Investigation 4.7 Group Instruction 4.8 Learning Together There are four basic modes of classroom instruction: whole class, grou
3、ps, pairs and individuals with whole class instruction remains the most common one. (Some people think pair work is simply group work in groups of two (Brown, 2001). Most scholars agree to the four-mode division, but, the use of group work in education, especially in language classes, is a growing t
4、rend. The ultimate aim of foreign language teaching is to help learners develop communicative skills. These should be reflected in classroom tasks and activities. Also, in China, the foreign language learners are studying English in a English- as-foreign language setting. For them, it is very import
5、ant to experience real communicative situations in which they learn to express their own views and attitudes, and in which they are taken seriously as people. The development of students communicative competence, the necessity of contextualization of language use, both require the use of group work.
6、 英语课程标准中指出：“英语课程的学习，既是 学生通过英语学习和实践活动，逐步掌握英语知识和 技能，提高语言实际运用能力的过程；又是他们磨砺意 志、陶冶情操、拓展视野、丰富生活经历、开发思维能 力、发展个性和提高人文素养的过程。” “小组合作学习”是课堂教学中充沛发挥学生主体 作用的一种有效办法，也是当前引导学生主动学习的 重要途径。促进了学生心理质量发展和社会意识的进 步。小组合作学习已经成为了进一步提高教学效率的 新战略。1.Definition of Group Work Group work is one of the techniques which are central to m
7、aintaining linguistic interaction in the classroom. Group work is a generic term covering a multiplicity of techniques in which three or more students are assigned a task that involves collaboration and self-initiated language. Group work usually implies small group work, that is, students in groups
8、 of perhaps six or fewer. Large groupings defeat one of the major purposes for doing group work: giving students greater opportunities to speak. Group work doesnt mean simply dividing students into groups and asking them to work together. By group work, we mean students working together as a group o
9、r team. The teacher may be involved at various stages, but the particular feature of group work perhaps its defining characteristic-is that the balance of ownership and control of the work shifts toward the students themselves. Group work should involve students as co-learners (Zajac & Hartyp, 1997)
10、, not just one student helping another (Blatchford, etc, 2003:155).2.Advantages of Group Work The use of group activities in the language classroom has been supported by both theoretical and pedagogical arguments. There have been a number of studies on group work since the mid of 1980s. Group work h
11、as a lot of advantages for English language classroom (Brown, 2001): 1) Group work generates interactive language. In so-called traditional language classes, teacher talk is dominant. Group work helps to solve the problem of classes that are too large to offer many opportunities to speak. Closely re
12、lated to the sheer quantity of output made possible through group work is the variety and quality of interactive language. With traditional methods, language tends to be restricted to initiation only by the teacher in an artificial setting where the whole class becomes a “group interlocutor”. Small
13、group provides opportunities for student initiation, for face- to- face give and take, for practice in negotiation of meaning, for extended conversational exchanges, and for student adoption of rules that would otherwise be impossible. 2) Group work offers an embracing affective climate. Another adv
14、antage offered by group work is the security of a smaller group of students where each individual is not so starkly on public display, vulnerable to what the student may perceive as criticism and rejection. This can increase students motivation. 3) Group work promotes learners responsibility and aut
15、onomy Group work places responsibility for action and progress upon each of the members of the group somewhat equally. It is difficult to “hide” in a small group. Other advantages include: giving teacher opportunities to work with individual learners; learner-learner relations being more horizontall
16、y organized and power being more likely to be evenly shared. So, the learner feels less anxious and more confident when interacting with peers during group activities. Olmnstead summarized some of the advantages of group workHe says group work can be used： i)To increase depth of understanding and gr
17、asp of course content ii)To enhance motivation and generate greater involvement of students iii)To develop positive attitudes toward later use of materials presented in the course iv)To develop problemsolving skills specific to the content of the course V)To provide practice in the application of co
18、ncepts and information to practical problems(in Owlish，1 990：239)3.Theoretical Bases of Group Work 3.1Cooperative Learning 3.2 Learner-Centered Instruction 3.3 Social Identity Theory3.Theoretical Bases of Group Work Group work is based on three theories: Cooperative Learning, Learner-Centered Instru
19、ction and Social Identity Theory.3.1 Cooperative Learning Group work is an application of the theory of cooperative learning in class. The theory emerged in 1960s in Great Britain and in 1970s, it appeared in the U.S. (Zhang, 2002). In cooperative learning, students work with their peers to accompli
20、sh a shared or common goal. The goal is reached through interdependence among all group members rather than working alone. In order to have effective cooperative learning, Dahley (1994) concluded five essential elements that are needed: positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual
21、accountability, social skills, group processing. Positive interdependence:正相互依赖正相互依赖 Each group members depend on each other to accomplish a shared goal or task. Without the help of one member, the group is not able to reach the desired goal. 正相互依赖是合作学习的一个重要因素，在合作学正相互依赖是合作学习的一个重要因素，在合作学习中，每一个学习者都有两个
22、责任，一是学习分配习中，每一个学习者都有两个责任，一是学习分配给自己的资料：二是确保所有成员学会所分配的材给自己的资料：二是确保所有成员学会所分配的材料。学生们知道他们不仅要为自己的学习负责，而料。学生们知道他们不仅要为自己的学习负责，而且要为他们所在小组中其他同学的学习负责。因此，且要为他们所在小组中其他同学的学习负责。因此，小组内的每一个成员都应该共同努力，明确目标，小组内的每一个成员都应该共同努力，明确目标，分工合作，资源共享，角色轮换，完成学习的任务。分工合作，资源共享，角色轮换，完成学习的任务。构建积极互赖的方式常用的有四种，目标互赖，奖构建积极互赖的方式常用的有四种，目标互赖，奖励
23、互赖，角色互赖，资料互赖。励互赖，角色互赖，资料互赖。 Face-to-face interaction: promoting success of group members by praising, encouraging, supporting or consisting each other. 面对面的促进性的互动交流：面对面的促进性的互动交流： 积极互赖产生促进性互动，而促进性互动要求学积极互赖产生促进性互动，而促进性互动要求学生进行面对面的交流。学生们在学习的合作中，生进行面对面的交流。学生们在学习的合作中，相互解释所学的东西，相互帮助、相互理解、相相互解释所学的东西，相互帮助、相
24、互理解、相互支持、共同完成学习任务。互支持、共同完成学习任务。 Individual accountability 个体责任个体责任 Each group member is held accountable for his or her work. Individual accountability helps to avoid members from hitchhiking on other group members accomplishments. 个体责任是指在学习的过程中，每个小组成员应个体责任是指在学习的过程中，每个小组成员应承担相应的责任并尽职尽责。小组成绩取决于小承担相应的
25、责任并尽职尽责。小组成绩取决于小组总的任务的完成情况，小组成绩将影响个人的组总的任务的完成情况，小组成绩将影响个人的成绩记录。成绩记录。 结合中学英语授课的情况，为了使小组的每一个结合中学英语授课的情况，为了使小组的每一个人都能积极地参与到合作学习中，特制定以下规人都能积极地参与到合作学习中，特制定以下规则使组员明确个人责任，则使组员明确个人责任，1)合理分配合理分配 2)明确任务明确任务 3)抽查与测试。抽查与测试。 Social skills: Cooperative learning groups set the stage for students to learn social sk
26、ills. These skills help to build stronger cooperation among group members. Leadership, decision-making, trust building and communication are different skills that are developed in cooperative learning. 社交技能社交技能 ： 社交技能是处理人与人关系的润滑剂。英语作为一社交技能是处理人与人关系的润滑剂。英语作为一种国际上常用的交流工具，在学习的过程中培养学种国际上常用的交流工具，在学习的过程中培养
27、学生的此项技能也是势在必行。因此，小组各种活动生的此项技能也是势在必行。因此，小组各种活动的开展就是期望所有学生能进行有效地沟通与合作，的开展就是期望所有学生能进行有效地沟通与合作，对小组的活动提供指导，建立并维护小组成员之间对小组的活动提供指导，建立并维护小组成员之间的相互信任，有效地解决组内冲突。的相互信任，有效地解决组内冲突。 Group processing小组自评小组自评 Group processing is an assessment of how groups are functioning to achieve their goals or tasks. By reviewi
28、ng group behavior, the students and the teacher get a chance to discuss special needs or problems within the group. 小组自评是指为了保持小组活动的有效性，定期小组自评是指为了保持小组活动的有效性，定期评价小组成员共同活动的情况是否良好，通过总评价小组成员共同活动的情况是否良好，通过总结经验分析问题提高有效性后进一步明确发展的结经验分析问题提高有效性后进一步明确发展的方向。方向。 According to Cooperative Learning Theory, group wor
29、k is not simply putting groups together in a room but group members must be closely united and cooperate mutually. The result of group work should be measured by the performance of the whole group. So, in an effective group work, individuals and the group are closely related and cooperate with each
30、other successfully.3. 2 Learner-Centered Instruction Learner-Centered Instruction is proposed by J.B.Carroll, an American Psychologist (Tang, 2000). It is a concept that has had a particularly important influence on second language teaching and learning over the last twenty years (Arnold, 2000). The
31、 discussion of effective language teaching in the 1980s shifted the emphasis from teacher-centered to learner-centered classrooms. With that shift comes a renewed focus on small group learning which affords students the opportunities to develop a range of cognitive, metacognitive and social, as well
32、 as linguistic skills while interacting and negotiating in the classroom. The first essential requirement for the use of learner-centered activities is a relaxed and friendly atmosphere in the group (Klippel, 1984). Learner-centered instruction is not a matter of handing over the rights and powers t
33、o learners in a unilateral way. Rather, it is collaborative effort between teacher and learners (Nunan, 1992:12). That is to say, learner-centered instruction doesnt deny the importance of the teacher, nor imply that there is no role for the teacher in learner-centered curriculum. In act, in order t
34、o successfully teach a foreign language to students, teachers recognize that, at a very practical level, they must constantly adjust their methods and materials on he basis of their identification of the local needs of their students. But, there is also a problem in learner-centered instruction. Tha
35、t is, the teachers absence removes from their work the usual source of authority (Nunan, 1999:14). Also, the teacher has to decide whether to join in the activity as an equal member or remain in the background to help and observe. The first alternative may reduce the psychological distance between t
36、eacher and students, so students can know their teacher better. But if the teacher joins in the activity, she will no longer be able to judge independently and give advice and help other groups. So, in a group activity, the teachers role is not devalued but changed to facilitator, organizer, directo
37、r or resource. The implementation of group work requires a lot on the teacher.3. 3 Social Identity Theory Language is primarily a social mechanism, so languages are learned in social contexts (Spolsky, 2000:31). By the 1980s and 1990s, discussions shifted from language itself to learning processes a
38、nd learning styles. The development of taxonomies of learning laid a foundation for the next development in the field: an emphasis on the social context for language learning. The theory of social identity was developed by Tajfel(1981) and Turner(1979): people are motivated to keep a positive self-i
39、mage. This self-image has two component parts: personal identity and social identity. From this theory, we can see two points: one is that human beings have a basic need for positive self-esteem. The other is that there are two aspects to identity: personal identity and social identity, self-esteem
40、is wrapped up in both. Adolescence is a time to develop ones identity. It is likely that the need to see the self as valuable is particularly relevant to them. Additionally, they should be highly sensitive to any feedback regarding their identity, as they are still in the process of trying to see th
41、emselves valuable. There is a close connection between language and social identity. Language is an intimate part of social identity (McGroarty, 2001). When the foreign language learners speak in the teacher-fronted big classroom, they will have communicative anxiety (McGroarty, 2001) or language an
42、xiety (Arnold, 2000:59). That is, the fear or apprehension occurring when a learner is expected to perform in foreign language. They worry about the kind of judgments that will be made about them. Anxiety makes them nervous and afraid and thus contributes to poor performance. This in turn creates mo
43、re anxiety and even worse performance. So, language teaching approaches in recent years have taken into special consideration the necessity of creating learning situations in which inhibition and ego barriers are lowered so that free communication can take place. Canfield and Wells suggest that: the
44、 most important thing the teacher can do to help students emotionally and intellectually is to create an environment of mutual support and care. The crucial thing is the safety and encouragement students sense in the classroom. So, in terms of this point, group work is a good choice. Learners may fe
45、el less anxious and more confident when interacting with peers during group activities than during whole class discussions. As to the relation between anxiety and performance, although Omaggio Hadley suggested that a certain amount of tension might be useful for language learning(Arnold,2000:159), m
46、ost language researches show a negative relationship. So, according to Social Identity Theory, in group work, the teacher has to balance his role. He should be more a facilitator than an instructor. He should give some necessary directions, instructions, but not give students too much pressure. The
47、learning environment should be of mutual support and care and in a relaxed atmosphere.4.Implementation of Group Work The successful application of the method of group work depends on many variables in a real classroom setting: surrounding social climate, students character and motivation, topic, tas
48、k type, teachers organization of group work, etc. Also, group work can go wrong if it is not carefully planned, well executed, monitored throughout and followed up on in some way. Practical steps to take to carry out successful group work are as following: selecting appropriate group technique, then
49、, planning group work. ( Possibly the most common reason for the breakdown of group work is an inadequate introduction and lead-in to the task itself.) The next step is monitoring the task which is a part of teachers role. The teacher needs to balance between being a controller and being a helper or
50、 guide. The teacher needs to establish this sensitive role: letting students know he will be available for help and he may make a suggestion or two here and there to keep the students on task but that the students are to carry out the task on their own (Brown, 2001:178-186).4. Implementation of Grou