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1、Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1 什么是语言学 what is linguistics1.1 定义 definition Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language. 1.2 语言学的探讨范畴 the scope of linguistics a. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 把语言作为一个整体而进展的全面的语言学探讨一般称为一般语言学。 b. The study of soun
2、ds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics. 语音学 How speech sounds are produced and classified. c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology 音
3、位学/ 音系学 交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式 d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. 形态学 how morphemes are combined to form words. 这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的探讨构成了语言学探讨的另一个分支，如对形态学的探讨。 e. The combination of these words to form p
4、ermissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学 how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences. f. The study of meaning. semantics 语义学 (in abstraction) g. the study of meaning is conducted in conte
5、xt of use. pragmatics 语用学 h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics. 社会语言学 i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里语言学 j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied lingu
6、istics1.3 语言学探讨中的一些根本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics. 1.3.1 规定性和描绘性 prescriptive vs. descriptive if a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;假如一种语言学的探讨是对人们实际运用中的语言进展的描绘和分析描绘性的descriptive if it aims at to lay down rules for “correct behaviour to tell pe
7、ople what they should say and what they should not say 假如某种探讨的目的是在对所谓“正确的行为制定一些规那么规定性的prescriptive 现代语言学通常是描绘性的，及“语法的语言探讨是大相径庭的1.3.2 共时性和历时性 synchronic vs. diachronic the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time i
8、s a diachronic study. 现代语言学中，共时性探讨比历时性探讨更受人青睐。1.3.3 口头语和书面语 speech and writing Speech and writing are two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the writ
9、ten word, partly because of its permanence. 1.3.4 语言和言语 langue and parole (both from French words) 瑞士语言学家F. de索绪尔 langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the member of a speech community. 语言，某一特定的语言社区中的全部成员所共有的那种抽象的语言系统； parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
10、 言语，在语言实际应用中的详细表达。 语言习惯和规那么；言语对这些习惯和规那么的遵守和实际应用 言语不过是一些一塌糊涂的语言材料，很难对此作系统的探讨； 语言学家们的任务是从言语中把语言提取出来，发觉指导语言实际应用的规那么，并使之成为语言学探讨的主题。1.3.5 语言实力和语言运用 competence and performance 美国语言学家-乔姆斯基 和语言，言语类似的概念 competence, the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language 实力是一个志向的语言运用者所具有的有关其所运用语言规那么的学问； perfor
11、mance, the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 运用那么指这种学问在语言交际过程中的实际运用。 索绪尔对语言的探讨实行的是社会学的观点，语言是社会习惯的产物； 乔姆斯基那么从心理学的角度来谛视语言现象，实力是每个说话者个体的心里特征。2 什么是语言？ what is language 2.1 语言的定义 definitions of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communi
12、cation. 语言是用于人类交际目的的一套随意的有声符号系统。 (1) language is a system (2) language is arbitrary (3) language is vocal (4) language is human specific 2.2 语言的甄别性特征 design features 甄别性特征识别性特征 人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区分开来的那些特征，其中五种： a. 语言的随意性武断性arbitrariness b. 语言的创建性 productivity c. 语言的双重性 duality d. 语言的位移性 displacement e.
13、语言的文化传递性 cultural transmissionChapter 2 Phonology音系学1 语言的声音媒介 the phonic medium of language 口语和书面语是语言作为交际工具所运用的两大主要媒介和物质手段；口语比书面语更为根本； 对于语言学家而言，对声音的探讨远远比对书面语的探讨重要得多，只关注人类器官发出的声音。2 语音学 phonetics 2.1 什么是语音学 what is phonetics phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; 对语言声音媒介的探
14、讨； 主要探讨对象是世界上全部的语言中出现过的一切声音 从三个角度来谛视语音现象： (1) 发音语音学 articulatory phonetics from the speakers point of viewhow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds (2) 听觉语音学 auditory phonetics from the hearers point of viewhow the sounds are perceived by the hearer (3) 声学语音学 acoustic phonetics I
15、t studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another 以上三个分支里，建立历史最长，开展最完善的就是发音语音学。 声音语言学家发觉证明了一些重要的事实。 2.2 语言的发音器官 organs of speech the articulatory apparatus器官 of a human being : pharyngeal cavit
16、y(the throat); voicing voiceless the oral cavity (the mouth); the nasal cavity (the nose) 2.3 语音的正字标音法宽式和严式标音法orthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions 国际音标 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 人类所发出的语音常常会在特殊微小的方面有所不同，国际音标向其运用者供应了一套“变音符号diacritics的附加符号，作为字母标音方法的补充
17、，以标示紧靠字母本身不能解决的那些微妙的语音差异 the transcription with letter-symbols only broad transcription the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics narrow transcription2.4 英语语音的分类 classification of English speech sounds 分为元音vowels和辅音consonants两大类 元音的定义 元音和辅音的区分2.4.1 英语辅音的分类 classification of
18、English consonants in terms of manner of articulation 依据发音方法stops爆破音; fricatives擦音; affricates塞擦音; liquids流音; nasals鼻音; glides滑音 in terms of place of articulation 依据发音位置 bilabial双唇音; labiodental唇齿音; dental齿音; alveolar齿龈音; palatal鄂音; velar软腭音; glottal喉音 2.4.2 英语的元音分类 classification of English vowels
19、a. the individual vowels / monophthongsthe position of the tongue in the mouth依据口中舌头的位置 front; central and backthe openness of the mouth 依据口张开的程度 close vowels闭元音, semi-close vowels半闭元音, semi-open vowels半开元音, and open vowels开元音 the shape of the lips 依据唇齿形态 rounded or not rounded the length of the vow
20、els 依据声音的长度 long vowels ; short vowels b. diphthongs 双元音3音位学 phonology 3.1 音位学和语音学 phonology and phonetics 语音学探讨的具有一般的性质，它所感爱好的人类语音中所涉及的：全部语音现象；发音方法，互相之间的区分，分别具有什么样的语音特征，如何进展分类等； 音位学所感爱好的是某一特定的语言中的语音系统，旨在提示： 一种语言中的语音形成组合的方式，以及它们是如何在语言交际活动中被用来传到意义的。 3.2 音素、音位和音位变体 phone, phoneme, allophone phone, the
21、 speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. 音素，我们在用一种语言讲话时所运用的声音。音素是一个语音单位或切分成分。phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.音位学关切的是可以区分意义的语音现象。 音位学中最根本的单位叫音位phoneme，这是一种具有意义甄别价值的单位，也是一个抽象单位。 音位不是一个详细的声音，而是一些语音区分特征的集合。 在实际的会话中，音位总
22、是以某个音素的形式得以表达出来的。 在不同的语言环境中, 可以代表同一个音位的不同音素叫做该音位的音位变体allophone。 音位也可以另外定义为，在某一特定的语言中, 语音相像却不互相构成比照的一组声音。 一个音位的选择不是随意或偶尔的，它是由规那么制约的。 音位是语言系统中最小的切分成分，还可以进一步分析区分性特征 区分性特征是及某种特定语言相联络的。3.3 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立对 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 语音上相像的声音可能会有两种相连的方式。 假如它们是两个不同的音位，就会
23、构成比照； 假如是同一个音位的音位变体话，那么它们在意义上就不构成比照。 These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.来自一样音位的音位变体就具有互补分布的特点 语言学家面对一种生疏语言的时候，首先找出传达意义的声音是什么，也就是要找出形成那种语言的所特有的声音系统的音位是什么。确定某种语言音位的一个根本方法就是找寻最小对立对。minimal pairs e.gpill-bill bill-kill kill-dill dill-gill 可以确定 /p/ /b/ /
24、t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ 是英语中的音位3.4 几条音位规那么 some rules in phonology 3.4.1 序列规那么 sequential rules 3.4.2 同化规那么 assimilation rules 3.4.3 省略规那么 deletion rule 3.5 超切分特征重音，腔调，语调 Suprasegmental features stress, tone, intonation音位具有区分意义作用的语音切分部分。但是在两个或者更多的音位切分序列层面上同样可以找到一些识别性特征。这些发生在切分层面以上的音位特征叫超切分特征。suprasegmental f
25、eatures 3.5.1 stress 3.5.2 tone 3.5.3 intonation Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1 定义 definition Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 形态学是语法学的一个分支，它探讨的是单词的内在构造及单词的构成规律。形态学可以进一步被划分为两个更小的分支：屈折形态学inflectional morphology和词汇形态学派生
26、形态学lexical or derivational morphology 前者探讨单词的屈折变更；后者探讨构词法2 词素 morpheme 2.1 词素：语言中最小的意义单位 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 正如音位是音系学探讨中的根本单位一样，词素是形态学探讨中的根本单位。2.2 词素的类型 types of morphemes 2.2.1 自由词素 free morphemes free morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used
27、by themselves. bound morphemes, cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.2.2.2. 黏着词素 bound morphemes bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bo
28、und, to form a word. bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes. root, a root is often seen as a part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must by combined with another root or an affix to form a word. affixes, affixes are of two types: inflec
29、tional and derivational. inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation派生法
30、and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative派生词. the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem词干 A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. according to its position in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefi
31、xes and suffixes 前缀会对词根的意思有所修改，但却不致变更原来单词的词类the part of speech。 后缀修改原有的单词的意义，许多状况下会使原有单词的词类the part of speech发生变更。2.2.3 形态学原那么 morphological rules 3 复合法 compounding 同派生法一样，复合法也是英语中相当普遍和及其重要的一种构词法。 3.1 复合词的类型 types of compound words 3.2 复合词的特征 features of compounds Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学 Syntax is a su
32、bfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. 句法学是语言的一个分支，它探讨的是语言的句子构造。 句子是依据词的特定排列依次所构成的，依次排列恰当的句子被认为是符合语法的句子， 符合语法的句子是依据一套句法规那么而构成的。在本章：a. a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentences.句法学概述：它是一套规那么系统，用来指导构成符合语法的句子。b. examine the composition of sente
33、nces in terms of category and structure, as well as the structural constituency and syntactic categories of smaller structural units.再从范畴和构造以及作为更小单位的构造成分和句法类型句子的构成进展分析。grammatical relations；内在的internalized以短语构造规那么phrase structure rules ，X-标杆理论X-bar theory以及移位规那么movement rules为核心的组合规那么系统。e. conclude
34、by introducing the current principles-and-parameters paradigm in syntactic exploration of Universal Grammar.当今句法探讨中的普遍语法原那么及参数理论。1 句法是规那么系统 syntax as a system of rules a. 句法学由一套抽象的规那么组成，这些规那么可以使词互相结合构成符合语法的句子。b. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the s
35、ystem of internalized knowledge of a language speaker know as linguistic competence.句法规那么在全部人类语言中都普遍存在，这些规那么包括讲某种语言的人内在的语言学问体系，这种语言学问体系被称作语言实力。c. 任何语言的句法规那么都是有限的。2 句子构造 sentence structure 2.1 句子的根本构造 the basic components of a sentence a. A sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate wh
36、ich contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. b. The referring expression被指示对象 is grammatically called subject. 2.2 句子的类型 types of sentences three types: simple sentence; coordinate sentence / compound sentence; complex sentence 2.2.1 简洁句 clause 子句，简洁句中只含有一个子句，有一个主语一个谓语，该句子单独构成句子。 finite clause 定式子句，
37、含有一个主语和一个限定动词同时在构造上可以独立存在的句子。2.2.2 并列句2.2.3 复合句 embedded clause附属子句, 被合并的句子或者居于附属地位的句子 the incorporated, or subordinate, clause matrix clause主句, 包纳附属子句的句子。 subordinator 附属连词 2.3 句子的线性排列及层次构造 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences linearly structure and hierarchically structure 2.3.1 句子的
38、线性次序排列 the linear word order of a sentence 2.3.2 句子的层次构造 the hierarchical structure of a sentence e.g. The student / likes / the new linguistics professor.2.3.3 句子的构造树形图 tree diagrams of sentence structure branching nodes 分叉点3 句法类型 syntactic categories Words and phrases are organized according to sy
39、ntactic categories句法类型 they belong to. Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (lexical category词类) or a phrase (phrasal category词组类) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. 3.1 词类 lexical categories 3.2 词组类 phrasal
40、categories 4 语法关系 grammatical relations grammatical relations, Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents. subject of 相对于的主语； direct object of 相对于干脆宾语 structural subject, structural object 构造主语，构造宾语 logical
41、subject, logical object 逻辑主语，逻辑宾语5 组合规那么 combinational rules 5.1 短语构造规那么 phrase structure rules SNP VP phrase structure rule or rewrite rule 5.2 短语构造规那么的循环性 the recursive-ness of phrase structure rules 这些规那么由于他们具有的循环特征recursive properties，可以生成多数个长度无限的句子来。 5.3 X-标杆理论 X-bar theory head 核心词 XP必需包含X，X分别
42、表示：N，V，A，P； XPX Det-specifier指示语, N-the head核心词, S-the complement补语 double bar但标杆 single bar双标杆 X-bar theory6 句法位移和位移规那么 syntactic movement and movement rules 短语构造规那么说明了句法类型如何构成以及句子是怎样生成的。然而有些句法现象短语构造规那么却无法描绘。例如，涉及位移的句子。syntactic movement 句法位移，受转换规那么的这些规那么支配的； transformational rules 转换规那么，转换规那么的运用变更
43、句子的句法表达方式。 6.1 名词词组位移及WH位移 NP-movement and WH-movement 句法位移主要有两种：postponing后移 preposing 前移 6.2 其他类型的位移 other types of movement 一般疑问句(general question)引起句法位移： AUX-movement 组动词位移 6.3 深层构造及表层构造 D-structure and S-structure 在正式的语言探讨中，前移和后移的表现形式通称为：D-structure and S-structure 深层构造，表层构造 语法构造规那么+词汇 深层构造 位移规那么 表层构造6.4 挪动一条普遍规那么 Move a general movement rule 犹如X-标杆规那么可以将各种短语构造规那么高度概括起来一样，句法位移也有一条普遍规那么来说明句法成分位移现象： Move or Move Alpha 7 普遍语法理论 toward a theory of Universal Grammar / UG principles-and-parameters theory