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1、1. Perception, Belief and Values2. Cultural Patterns3. Application of theories1.1 Perception1.2 Beliefs1.3 Values Perception is primary in the study of intercultural communication, because our information about and knowledge of our physical and social world are mediated(传达 )by perceptual processes.
2、Our perceptions give meaning to all those external forces: symbols, things, people, ideas, events, ideologies and faith. “Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory data in a way that enables us to make sense of our world.” (Gamble and Gamble) (P56) Two ways that cu
3、lture influences the perception process:1. Perception is selective. What is allowed in is, in part, determined by culture. 2. Your perceptual patterns are learned. “perception is culturally determined. We learn to see the world in a certain way based on our cultural background.” see P57-58 Perceptio
4、ns are stored within each human being in the form of beliefs + values = cultural patterns 1.What are beliefs? Beliefs are our convictions in the truth of somethingwith or without proof.(p58) 2. How did you acquire them? Beliefs are shaped by the individuals culture.” 3. What function do they perform
5、? Beliefs are important because they are accepted as truths. One of the most important functions of beliefs is that they form the basis of your values, 4. Beliefs are usually reflected in your actions and communication behavior. Eg1) A good tan（棕褐色） is a reflection of a healthy, active lifestyle and
6、 makes a person more attractive. you will probably - (find time to lie out in the sun or even go to a tanning salon. )2)Suntanned skin reflects a low social status, you will probably- ( make an extra effort to avoid exposing yourself to the sun by wearing a hat, long-sleeved shirt, and perhaps glove
7、s, and carrying an umbrella, on sunny days. )1)A Value is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to another.2)Values are shared ideas about what is true, right, and beautiful which underline cultural patterns and guide societ
8、y in response to the physical and social environment.” (Nanda &Warms)3) Values are a learned organization of rules for making choices and for resolving conflicts. 4) Hofstede: Values are “a broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others”. E.g. evil vs. good, dirty vs. clean, dangerou
9、s vs. safe, decent vs. indecent, ugly vs. beautiful, unnatural vs. natural, abnormal vs. normal, paradoxical vs. logical, irrational vs. rational, moral vs. immoral.Secondary ValuesPrimary Values US hospitality to guests cleanlinessAlleviation of the pain and suffering of others securing material po
10、ssessionsDemocracy the protection of oneself and close family member Tertiary Values How to get: 1. from ones family 2. from school teachers; 3. from ones peers (friends, schoolmates, play mates; 4. from society at large Where to find 1. from peoples behavior pattern 2. from what people say about th
11、emselves; 3. from myths, tales of heroes and rituals; 4. from folk tales, movies, proverbs, sayings, etc. Individualism, Equality, Materialism, Science and technology, Progress and change, Work and leisure, Competition US Dominant cultural patterns (P62-65)2.1 Definitions 2.2 Kluckhohn, Kluckhohn an
12、d Strodtbeck Value Orientation2.3 Hofstedes Values Dimension2.4 Halls Context OrientationPerceptions are stored within each human being in the form of beliefs + values = cultural patterns. Cultural pattern taxonomies are used to illustrate the dominant beliefs and values of a culture.Variations of V
13、alue Studies Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks Value OrientationHofstedes Dimensions of Cultural VariabilityEdward T HallsContext - Culture TheoryHuman NatureMan-natureTimeActivitySocial RelationshipIndividualism VsCollectivismUncertainty AvoidancePower DistanceMasculinity VsFemininityHigh-ContextLow-Contex
14、t5 basic questions that need answering at the root of any culture: 1) What is the character of human nature? 2) What is the relation of man to nature? 3) What is the orientation toward time? (temporal focus) 4) What is the mode of human activity? 5) What is the mode of human relationship?1) = Human
15、nature orientation 人性取向人性取向2) = Man-nature orientation 人与自然的关系取向人与自然的关系取向3) = Time orientation 时间取向时间取向4) = Activity orientation 行为取向行为取向5) = Social orientation 人际取向人际取向oriantationBasic valuesHuman NatureBasically EvilMixture of Good and Evil Basically GoodRelationship of Humankind to NatureMan subj
16、ugated by NatureMan in Harmony with NatureMan the Master of NatureSense of TimePastPresentFutureActivityBeing (who you areGrowing (self-development)Doing (what you do)Social Relationship AuthoritarianGroup-OrientedIndividualistic 1). Human nature is evil but perfectible. With the influence of Christ
17、ianity, Westerners believe that human nature is basically evil due to their original sin. However, the evil nature can be saved through salvation, if one believes in Jesus Christ and continues doing good things. 2). Human nature is a mixture of good and evil. As a result of the rise of humanism in t
18、he west, the above basic belief has changed to one seeing humans as a mixture of good and evil. In other words, everyone has the good side and bad side. Therefore, there is law system in human society to reward the good in people and punish the bad and make sure that men are not doing anything evil.
19、 3). Human nature is good but corruptible. Good: the philosophies of Confucianism and Buddhism. In China, as in other Asian societies that have accepted the teaching of Confucius, people are believed to be basically good. Children are believed to be pure and innocent but may become corrupted as they
20、 grow older and have more contact with society. They will be bad if they dont have good education when they are very young”. (人之初，性本善。性相人之初，性本善。性相近，习相远。苟不教，性乃迁近，习相远。苟不教，性乃迁) Buddhism maintains that you are born pure and are closest to what is called “loving kindness” when you enter this world. Hence
21、, people are good, but their culture often makes them evil.Relationship of Human- kind to NatureMan subjugated by NatureMan in Harmony with NatureMan the Master of Nature Accept your fateLive according to the rhythms of natureMake life comfortable and convenient Life is outside the individuals contr
22、olEverything has its own characterProblems can be solved once we know the factsBe humbleBe balancedBe objective 2.2.2. man-nature orientation 1). Subjugation(屈服屈服) to nature.The most powerful forces of life are beyond their control. Whether the force be a god, fate, or magic, a person cannot overcom
23、e it and must therefore learn to accept it. This orientation is found in India and parts of South America. For the Hindu, because everything is part of a unified force. This “oneness” with the world helps create a vision of a world operating in harmony. Eg. some Hindu sects such as the Bishois do no
24、t allow the cutting down of any trees or the slaughter of animals. This is extreme reverence for Nature, which has precedence over human activities. In Mexico and among Mexican Americans, there is a strong tie to Catholicism and the role of fate in controlling life and nature. 2). Harmony with natur
25、e The harmony view is widespread and is associated with East Asians. Chinese people believe the balance and harmony between man and natural world. This belief permeates in every aspect of Chinese culture. Chinese medicine, for example, is mainly to adjust the unbalanced human body. In Japan and Thai
26、land, there is a perception that nature is part of life and not a hostile force waiting to be subdued. This orientation affirms that people should, in every way possible, live in harmony with nature. The desire to be part of nature and not control it has always been strong among American Indians. 3)
27、. Mastery over nature Western people believe they are the masters of nature. This value orientation is characteristic of the Western approach, which has a long tradition of valuing technology, change, and science. People with this orientation see a clear separation between humans and nature. America
28、ns have historically believed that nature was something that could and had to be mastered. Early West European immigrants to North America encountered a vast, unforgiving wilderness that they set about to “tame,” and modern astronauts are working to “conquer” space. 2.2.3. Time orientation Past Pres
29、ent FuturePast-oriented cultures: the past should be the guide for making decisions and determining truth. believe strongly in the significance of prior events. History, established religions, and tradition are extremely important to these cultures The French live surrounded by thousands of monument
30、s to their glorious past. Every quarter in Paris has its historically important statues, buildings, or fountains, daily reminders of past achievements. French villages have statues to local heroes and important political leaders. As a result of this constant immersion in history, the French tend to
31、see things in their historical context and relate contemporary events to their origins.China,-because of its long and resplendent history continues to respect the past. Respect for their historical heritage is considered the most important traditional value. The word old usually symbolizes experienc
32、e and authority. (“百年老店”, “老字号”)In Japan, where Shintoism is strong and reverence toward ancestors is important, the past still remains paramount. Great Britain, because of its devotion to tradition, including the continuation of a monarchy, resists change as it continues tovalue its historical achi
33、evements. The French, on many levels, venerate the pastIn the United States, American Indians value the past. Present-oriented cultures hold that the immediate moment has the most significance, because they see the future as vague, ambiguous, and unknown. For these cultures, what is real exists in t
34、he here and now, and the present should be enjoyed. People of the Philippines and most Latin American countries usually hold these beliefs. Mexican Americans also “prefer to experience life and people around them fully in the present.” also characteristic of the African- American co-culture.Future-o
35、riented cultures emphasize what is to come and expect the future to be grander and nicer than the present. The word old is associated with “falling behind and uselessness, while new is related to progress, change and challenge. People even believe they can control the future. Future orientation prev
36、ails in the western culture.Such as the U.S. dominant culture, “If at first you dont succeed, try, try again.” “Yesterday is not ours to recover, but tomorrow is ours to win or to lose.”2.2.4. Activity orientation Being（存在） : a nondevelopmental model Being-in-becoming （成为） : a spiritual goal of inne
37、r harmony and peace. Doing（做）: activity that leads to external accomplishmentsPeople in being-orientated cultures accept people, events, and ideas as flowing spontaneously. They stress release, indulgence of existing desires, and working for the moment.” Most Latino cultures have the view that the c
38、urrentactivity is the one that matters the most. In Mexico, for example, people take great delight in the simple act of conversation with family and friends. Mexicans will talk for hours with their companions, for they believe that the act of “being” is one of the main goals and joys of life The bei
39、ng-in-becoming orientation stresses the idea of development and growth. It emphasizes the kind of activity that contributes to the development of all aspects of the self as an integral whole. This usually correlates with cultures that value a spiritual life more than a material one. For example, in
40、both Hinduism and Buddhism, people spend a portion of their lives in meditation and contemplation in an attempt to purify and fully advance themselves. Many of the New Age religious movements in the United States also stress the need to develop the being-in-becoming approach to daily life. The key t
41、o this orientation is a value system that stresses activity and action. The dominant American culture: Americans are action oriented; they are go-getters. They get going, get things done, and get ahead. In America, people gather for actionto play basketball, to dance, to go to a concert, and to take
42、 risks. When groups gather they play games or watch videos. Many Americans dont have the patience to sit down and talk. . . . Life is in constant motion.Social Relationship Authoritarian G r o u p -OrientedIndividualistic 社会等级森严集体取向个人取向 Social relationships 1）hierarchy: This means each person has a
43、position in a hierarchy. People have clearly defined privileges and obligations according to their position in relation to others. China is basically a hierarchical society. 2). Group In cultures with group values, people make decisions by consensus. Each persons social identity comes from his or he
44、r groups. Loyalty is important in cultures with group values. 3). Individual In cultures with individualistic values, each person is seen as autonomous and separate. Everyone is equal. Self is more important than group. OrientationChinese valuesWestern valuesH u m a n NatureBasically GoodMixture of
45、Good and EvilRelationship of Humankind to NaturePeople in Harmony with NaturePeople the Mater of NatureS e n s e o f TimePast OrientedFuture OrientedActivityBeingDoingS o c i a l RelationshipsAuthoritarian / Group OrientedIndividualistic Hofstedes work was one of the earliest attempts to use extensi
46、ve statistical data to examine cultural values. During the 1980s, he surveyed over a hundred thousand workers in multinational organizations in forty countries. The findings were the result of a research conducted in a large enterprise, IBM, with its branches in 67 countries. .5 dimensions: power di
47、stance uncertainty avoidance individualism/collectivism masculinity/femininity later discussed a 5th dimension-long term view (Asia) Individualistic cultures Individualistic cultures “I” consciousness independence, competition, individual achievement Collectivist culturesCollectivist cultures “We” c
48、onsciousness, interdependence, group harmony, group cooperationindividualism collectivism We can find many examples in our daily life, which stress group behaviors such as “我们都(We all“深受大众喜爱”(be well popular), ”:老少皆宜“ (good for all ages), “大家好，才是真好” (the product is good for all, so it is indeed good
49、), “全国用户满意” (the customers all over the country are satisfied.). The following advertisements show this orientation clearly. l) Find your own road. 2) In this age of technology-sharing, whatever happened to individuality?According to Hofstedes findings (see Table 5.1), the United States, Australia,
50、Great Britain, Canada, the Netherlands,and New Zealand all tend toward individualism. Goleman2. In collective societies, such as those in Pakistan, Colombia, Venezuela, Taiwan, Peru, and much of Africa and Asia, people are born into extended families or clans that support and protect them in exchang