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1、Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.WHAT IS A COMPETITIVE MARKET? uA perfectly competitive market has the following characteristics:uThere are many buyers and sellers in the market.uThe goods offered by the various sellers are largely the same.uFirms can freely ent
2、er or exit the market.uEach buyer and seller is a price taker.Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.什么是竞争市场?什么是竞争市场?u完全竞争市场完全竞争市场有以下特点有以下特点 :u市场中有许多买者和许多卖者。市场中有许多买者和许多卖者。u各个卖者所提供的物品大体上是相同的。各个卖者所提供的物品大体上是相同的。u企业可以自由地进入或退出市场。企业可以自由地进入或退出市场。u每个买者和卖者都是价格接受者每个买者和卖者都是价格接受者
3、Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.DSEP ePQPQdOO完全竞争市场的需完全竞争市场的需求曲线求曲线(图中的图中的D线线)完全竞争厂商所完全竞争厂商所面临的需求曲线面临的需求曲线d市场需求曲线与厂商需求曲线市场需求曲线与厂商需求曲线Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.d (AR=MR=P)TRPPOOQQ 某完全竞争厂商的收益曲线某完全竞争厂商的收益曲线Harcourt, Inc
4、. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.Profit Maximization and the Competitive Firms Supply CurveuThe goal of a competitive firm is to maximize profit.uThis means that the firm will want to produce the quantity that maximizes the difference between total revenue and total cost.Har
5、court, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.利润最大化与竞争企业的供给曲线利润最大化与竞争企业的供给曲线u竞争企业的目标是竞争企业的目标是利润最大化。利润最大化。u这就意味着企业想生产某一产量,这就意味着企业想生产某一产量,使总收益与总成本的差最大。使总收益与总成本的差最大。Table 2 Profit Maximization: A Numerical ExampleCopyright2004 South-WesternHarcourt, Inc. items and derived items co
6、pyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.表表2. 利润最大化利润最大化: 一个数字例子一个数字例子价格价格(P)销量销量(Q)总收益总收益(TR=PxQ)总成本总成本(TC)利润利润(TR-TC)边际收益边际收益(MR= )边际成本边际成本MC=利润变化利润变化MR-MC0$0.00$3.00-$3.00$6.001$6.00$5.00$1.00$6.00$2.00$4$6.002$12.00$8.00$4.00$6.00$3.00$3$6.003$18.00$12.00$6.00$6.00$4.00$2$6.004$24.00$17.00$7.00$6.00$5.00$1
7、$6.005$30.00$23.00$7.00$6.00$6.00$0$6.006$36.00$30.00$6.00$6.00$7.00($1)$6.007$42.00$38.00$4.00$6.00$8.00($2)$6.008$48.00$47.00$1.00$6.00$9.00($3)Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.Profit Maximization for the Competitive Firm竞争企业的利润最大化竞争企业的利润最大化Profit maximization
8、 occurs at the quantity where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.当边际收益等于边际成本时,企业实当边际收益等于边际成本时,企业实现现利润最大化。利润最大化。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.Profit Maximization for the Competitive FirmWhen MR MC increase QWhen MR MC 时,增加产量时,增加产量 Q当当 MR AC时,企业才能获得经济利润;时,企业
9、才能获得经济利润;当当AR=AC时,企业的经济利润为零,获得正常利润;时,企业的经济利润为零,获得正常利润;当当AR SAC 获得经济利润或超额利润;获得经济利润或超额利润;n2)P=AR=SAC 称为盈亏平衡点(称为盈亏平衡点(Break Even),获得正),获得正常利润。常利润。n3)AVCAR=PSAC 出现亏损,但仍应继续生产,因为出现亏损,但仍应继续生产,因为可补偿全部可补偿全部AVC和部分和部分FC,所以亏损额小于固定成本。,所以亏损额小于固定成本。n4) P=AR=AVC 停止营业点或关门点(停止营业点或关门点( shutdown )。n5) P=ARAVC 停止生产。停止生产
10、。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.总结:总结:n完全竞争条件下的企业:完全竞争条件下的企业:n供给原则:在供给原则:在MC=MP=P时,实现利润最大化。时,实现利润最大化。n停业原则:企业的收入刚好抵补它的可变成本(或损停业原则:企业的收入刚好抵补它的可变成本(或损失等于固定成本)时,为停止营业点。失等于固定成本)时,为停止营业点。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.实例:价格低于
11、ATC的生产n汽车行业。如通用汽车公司,汽车行业。如通用汽车公司,1990年亏损年亏损20亿,亿,1991年亏损年亏损45亿,经历了戏剧性的衰落仍然继续经营。亿,经历了戏剧性的衰落仍然继续经营。n石油业。当石油业。当1998年世界石油价格为年世界石油价格为9.96美元时,北海美元时,北海与西得克萨斯油田仍继续生产。与西得克萨斯油田仍继续生产。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.分析中思维的原则和方法n边际原则:让过去成为过去边际原则:让过去成为过去 对于任何决策,要准确地计算你将多为之付出
12、的成本,并把它和对于任何决策,要准确地计算你将多为之付出的成本,并把它和你将来因之而增加的收益相权衡。你将来因之而增加的收益相权衡。n忽略沉没成本忽略沉没成本 经济学、商业活动和生活中一条重要的规则是经济学、商业活动和生活中一条重要的规则是“沉没成本原则沉没成本原则”。这就是说,在决策时不要考虑沉没成本(它们是从不可补偿的。这就是说,在决策时不要考虑沉没成本(它们是从不可补偿的损失的意义上来讲,这些成本是过去的成本)损失的意义上来讲,这些成本是过去的成本) 比如在短期,厂商生产的固定成本就是沉没成本,因为在短期固比如在短期,厂商生产的固定成本就是沉没成本,因为在短期固定要素不能调整改变用途。定
13、要素不能调整改变用途。 Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.案例:泛美航空公司的终结案例:泛美航空公司的终结 19911991年年1212月月4 4日,世界著名的泛美航空公司寿终正寝。这家公司自日,世界著名的泛美航空公司寿终正寝。这家公司自从从19271927年投入飞行以来,数十年中一直保持着国际航空巨子的骄人年投入飞行以来,数十年中一直保持着国际航空巨子的骄人业绩。但是对于了解内情的人来说,这个巨人的死亡算不上什么令业绩。但是对于了解内情的人来说,这个巨人的死亡算不上什么令人吃惊的新闻。
14、人吃惊的新闻。1980198019911991年,除了一年之外,泛美公司年年亏损年,除了一年之外,泛美公司年年亏损,总金额接近,总金额接近2020亿美元之巨。亿美元之巨。19911991年公司正式宣布破产。年公司正式宣布破产。 讨论:讨论: 1 1、为什么在、为什么在19801980年出现首次亏损之后,不马上停止这家公司的业年出现首次亏损之后,不马上停止这家公司的业务?务? 2 2、又是什么因素使这家公司得以连续亏损经营长达、又是什么因素使这家公司得以连续亏损经营长达1212年之久?年之久?Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 200
15、1 by Harcourt, Inc.The Firms Short-Run Decision to Shut DownuA shutdown refers to a short-run decision not to produce anything during a specific period of time because of current market conditions.uExit refers to a long-run decision to leave the market.Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyrigh
16、t 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.企业的短期停止营业决策企业的短期停止营业决策u停止营业停止营业是指在某个特殊时期由是指在某个特殊时期由于当前的市场条件而不生产任何于当前的市场条件而不生产任何东西的短期决策。东西的短期决策。u退出退出 是指离开市场的长期决策。是指离开市场的长期决策。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.The Firms Short-Run Decision to Shut DownThe firm considers its sunk costs when
17、deciding to exit, but ignores them when deciding whether to shut down.uSunk costs are costs that have already been committed and cannot be recovered.Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.企业的短期停止营业决策企业的短期停止营业决策 当决定退出时,企业考虑当决定退出时,企业考虑沉淀沉淀成本;成本;当决定是否停止营业时企业当决定是否停止营业时企业应
18、忽略沉淀成本。应忽略沉淀成本。u沉淀成本沉淀成本 是已经发生而且无法收回是已经发生而且无法收回(并与当前决策无关)(并与当前决策无关)的成本。的成本。Figure 3 The Competitive Firms Short Run Supply CurveMCQuantityATCAVC0CostsFirmshutsdown ifP AVC, firm will continue to produce in the short run.If P ATC, the firm will continue to produce at a profit.Harcourt, Inc. items and
19、 derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.图图3. 竞争企业的短期供给曲线竞争企业的短期供给曲线产量产量ATCAVC0成本成本MC如果如果 P AVC, 短期内继续生产短期内继续生产如果如果 P ATC, 继续生产可以继续生产可以获得利润获得利润企业短期供给曲线企业短期供给曲线Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.The Firms Short-Run Decision to Shut down企业的短期停止营业决策企业的短期停止营业决策T
20、he portion of the marginal-cost curve that lies above average variable cost is the competitive firms short-run supply curve.竞争企业的竞争企业的短期供给曲线短期供给曲线是边际成本曲线是边际成本曲线在平均可变成本曲线以上的那一部分。在平均可变成本曲线以上的那一部分。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.The Firms Long-Run Decision to Exit
21、 or Enter a MarketuIn the long-run, the firm exits if the revenue it would get from producing is less than its total cost. Exit if TR TC Exit if TR/Q TC/Q Exit if P ATCHarcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.企业进入或退出一个市场的长期决策企业进入或退出一个市场的长期决策u在长期中,如果从生产中得到的收益小在长期中,如果从生产中
22、得到的收益小于生产的总成本于生产的总成本,企业就退出。企业就退出。 如果如果 TR TC, 就退出。就退出。 如果如果 TR/Q TC/Q,就退出。就退出。 如果如果 P TC Enter if TR/Q TC/Q Enter if P ATCHarcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.企业进入或退出一个市场的长期决策企业进入或退出一个市场的长期决策u如果一种行动将有利可图,企业就将进如果一种行动将有利可图,企业就将进入一个市场。入一个市场。 如果如果 TR TC, 就进入。就进入。 如果如果 T
23、R/Q TC/Q,就进入。就进入。 如果如果 P ATC, 就进入。就进入。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.行业内厂商数目的变化行业内厂商数目的变化对厂商长期均衡的影响对厂商长期均衡的影响LMCPOP3P2P1LACd1 (AR1=MR1=P1)d2 (AR2=MR2=P2)d3 (AR3=MR3=P3)QE1E3E2注:假定行业内所有企业是完全相同的注:假定行业内所有企业是完全相同的Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 20
24、01 by Harcourt, Inc.如何理解长期的零经济利润均衡如何理解长期的零经济利润均衡n讨论讨论n1、“在长期,竞争的利润怎么能是零呢?谁愿意不赚在长期,竞争的利润怎么能是零呢?谁愿意不赚钱干活呢?钱干活呢?”n2、为什么长期竞争会消除超额利润?、为什么长期竞争会消除超额利润?Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.Why Do Competitive Firms Stay in Business If They Make Zero Profit? uProfit equals to
25、tal revenue minus total cost.uTotal cost includes all the opportunity costs of the firm.uIn the zero-profit equilibrium, the firms revenue compensates the owners for the time and money they expend to keep the business going.Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.如果竞争企
26、业获得零利润,为什么它们还在经营?如果竞争企业获得零利润,为什么它们还在经营?u利润等于总收益减总成本。利润等于总收益减总成本。u总成本包括企业的所有机会成本。总成本包括企业的所有机会成本。u在零利润均衡时,企业的收益应该补在零利润均衡时,企业的收益应该补偿所有者期望用于使其企业维持的时偿所有者期望用于使其企业维持的时间和金钱。间和金钱。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.Figure 4 The Competitive Firms Long-Run Supply Curve竞争企业的长期
27、供给曲线竞争企业的长期供给曲线Quantity产量产量MC = Long-run S企业长期供给曲线企业长期供给曲线ATCAVC0Costs成本成本Firm enters if P ATC如果如果P ATC,企业进入企业进入Firm exitsif P ATC如果如果P ATC,企业退出企业退出Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.THE SUPPLY CURVE IN A COMPETITIVE MARKET竞争市场的供给曲线竞争市场的供给曲线The competitive firms l
28、ong-run supply curve is the portion of its marginal-cost curve that lies above average total cost.竞争企业的竞争企业的长期供给曲线长期供给曲线是边际成本曲线位是边际成本曲线位于平均总成本曲线之上的那一部分。于平均总成本曲线之上的那一部分。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.Figure 4 The Competitive Firms Long-Run Supply Curve竞争企业的长期供给
29、曲线竞争企业的长期供给曲线Quantity产量产量MCATCAVC0Costs成本成本Firms long-run supply curve企业长期供给曲线企业长期供给曲线Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.THE SUPPLY CURVE IN A COMPETITIVE MARKETuShort-Run Supply CurveuThe portion of its marginal cost curve that lies above average variable cost.uL
30、ong-Run Supply CurveuThe marginal cost curve above the minimum point of its average total cost curve.Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.竞争市场的供给曲线竞争市场的供给曲线u短期供给曲线短期供给曲线u边际成本曲线在平均可变成本曲线以边际成本曲线在平均可变成本曲线以上的那一部分。上的那一部分。u长期供给曲线长期供给曲线u边际成本曲线位于平均总成本曲线之边际成本曲线位于平均总成本曲线之上的那一
31、部分。上的那一部分。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.Supply in a Competitive Market竞争市场的供给竞争市场的供给Market supply equals the sum of the quantities supplied by the individual firms in the market. 市场供给等于市场中个别企业的市场供给等于市场中个别企业的供給量之和。供給量之和。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items c
32、opyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.The Short Run: Market Supply with a Fixed Number of FirmsuFor any given price, each firm supplies a quantity of output so that its marginal cost equals price. uThe market supply curve reflects the individual firms marginal cost curves. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived
33、items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.短期:有固定数量企业的市场供给短期:有固定数量企业的市场供给u在任何一种既定价格时,个别企业供給在任何一种既定价格时,个别企业供給量是使边际成本等于价格时的产量。量是使边际成本等于价格时的产量。 u市场供给曲线反映了个别企业的边际成市场供给曲线反映了个别企业的边际成本曲线。本曲线。Figure 6 Market Supply with a Fixed Number of Firms(a) Individual Firm SupplyQuantity (firm)0PriceMC1.00100$2.00200(b) Ma
34、rket SupplyQuantity (market)0PriceSupply1.00100,000$2.00200,000Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.图图6. 有固定数量企业的市场供给有固定数量企业的市场供给(a) 个别企业供给个别企业供给产量产量(企业企业)0价格价格(b) 市场供给市场供给产量产量(市场市场)价格价格0供给供给MC1.00$2.001002001.00$2.00100,000200,000Harcourt, Inc. items and derived it
35、ems copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.The Long Run: Market Supply with Entry and ExituFirms will enter or exit the market until profit is driven to zero.uIn the long run, price equals the minimum of average total cost.uThe long-run market supply curve is horizontal at this price.Harcourt, Inc. items a
36、nd derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.长期:有进入与退出的市场供给长期:有进入与退出的市场供给u企业进入或退出市场,直到经济企业进入或退出市场,直到经济利润为零。利润为零。u在长期中,价格等于最小平均总在长期中,价格等于最小平均总成本。成本。u长期市场供给曲线是这一价格时长期市场供给曲线是这一价格时的水平线。的水平线。Figure 7 Market Supply with Entry and Exit(a) Firm s Zero-Profit ConditionQuantity (firm)0Price(b) Market Supp
37、lyQuantity (market)Price0P = minimumATCSupplyMCATCHarcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.图图7. 有进入与退出的市场供给有进入与退出的市场供给(a) 企业零利润状态企业零利润状态产量产量(企业企业)0价格价格 P =最小最小 ATC(b) 市场供给市场供给产量产量(市场市场)价格价格0供给供给MCATCHarcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
38、The Long Run: Market Supply with Entry and ExituAt the end of the process of entry and exit, firms that remain must be making zero economic profit.uThe process of entry & exit ends only when price and average total cost are driven to equality.uLong-run equilibrium must have firms operating at their
39、efficient scale.Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.长期:有进入与退出的市场供给长期:有进入与退出的市场供给u在这种进入和退出过程结束时,仍然留在在这种进入和退出过程结束时,仍然留在市场中的企业必定得到零经济利润。市场中的企业必定得到零经济利润。u只有当价格与平均总成本被推向相等时,只有当价格与平均总成本被推向相等时,进入与退出过程才结束。进入与退出过程才结束。u竞争市场长期均衡一定是企业在其有效规竞争市场长期均衡一定是企业在其有效规模时运行。模时运行。Harcourt,
40、Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.A Shift in Demand in the Short Run and Long Run 短期与长期的需求移动短期与长期的需求移动uAn increase in demand raises price and quantity in the short run. 在短期内,需求增加导致价格和数量上升。在短期内,需求增加导致价格和数量上升。uFirms earn profits because price now exceeds average total cost.
41、此时价格高于平均总成本,因此,企业赚到了此时价格高于平均总成本,因此,企业赚到了正的经济利润。正的经济利润。 Figure 8 An Increase in Demand in the Short Run and Long RunFirm(a) Initial ConditionQuantity (firm)0PriceMarketQuantity (market)Price0DDemand, 1SShort-run supply, 1P1ATCLong-runsupplyP11QAMCHarcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001
42、by Harcourt, Inc.图图8. 短期与长期需求增加短期与长期需求增加市场市场企业企业产量产量(企业企业)0价格价格MCATCP1产量产量(市场市场)价格价格0D1,P1Q1AS1,长期供给长期供给曲线曲线(a) 最初状态最初状态P 短期供给短期供给需求需求Figure 8 An Increase in Demand in the Short Run and Long RunMarketFirm(b) Short-Run ResponseQuantity (firm)0PriceMCATCProfitP1Quantity (market)Long-runsupplyPrice0D1D
43、2P1S1P2Q1AQ2P2BHarcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.D2图图8. 短期与长期需求增加短期与长期需求增加市场市场企业企业产量产量(企业企业)0价格价格MC ATCP1产量产量(市场市场)价格价格0D1P1Q1AS1长期供给长期供给曲线曲线(b) 短期反应短期反应Q2BP2P2利润利润Figure 8 An Increase in Demand in the Short Run and Long RunP1Firm(c) Long-Run ResponseQuantity (fi
44、rm)0PriceMCATCMarketQuantity (market)Price0P1P2Q1Q2Long-runsupplyBD1D2S1AS2Q3CHarcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.图图8. 短期与长期需求增加短期与长期需求增加市场市场企业企业产量产量(企业企业)0价格价格MC ATCP1产量产量(市场市场)价格价格0D1P1Q1AS1长期供给长期供给曲线曲线(c) 长期反应长期反应D2BQ2P2S2CQ3Harcourt, Inc. items and derived item
45、s copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.Why the Long-Run Supply Curve Might Slope Upward为什么长期供给曲线会向右上方倾斜为什么长期供给曲线会向右上方倾斜uSome resources used in production may be available only in limited quantities. 一些用于生产的资源数量可能是有限的一些用于生产的资源数量可能是有限的uFirms may have different costs. 企业可能有不同的成本企业可能有不同的成本Harcourt, Inc. item
46、s and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.Why the Long-Run Supply Curve Might Slope Upward为什么长期供给曲线会向右上方倾斜为什么长期供给曲线会向右上方倾斜nMarginal Firm 边际企业边际企业The marginal firm is the firm that would exit the market if the price were any lower. 边际企业边际企业如果价格有任何下降就退如果价格有任何下降就退出市场的企业。出市场的企业。Harcourt, Inc.
47、items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.SummaryuBecause a competitive firm is a price taker, its revenue is proportional to the amount of output it produces.uThe price of the good equals both the firms average revenue and its marginal revenue.Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items co
48、pyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.小结小结u因为竞争企业是价格接受者,所因为竞争企业是价格接受者,所以它的收益与产量是同比例的。以它的收益与产量是同比例的。u物品的价格等于企业的平均收益物品的价格等于企业的平均收益和边际收益。和边际收益。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.SummaryuTo maximize profit a firm chooses the quantity of output such that marginal revenue equal
49、s marginal cost. uThis is also the quantity at which price equals marginal cost.uTherefore, the firms marginal cost curve is its supply curve.Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.小结小结u为了利润最大化,企业选择使边际为了利润最大化,企业选择使边际收益等于边际成本的产量。收益等于边际成本的产量。 u这一产量也是价格等于边际成本的这一产量也是价格等于边
50、际成本的产量。产量。u因此,企业的边际成本曲线就是它因此,企业的边际成本曲线就是它的供给曲线。的供给曲线。Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.SummaryuIn the short run when a firm cannot recover its fixed costs, the firm will choose to shut down temporarily if the price of the good is less than average variable cost.u