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1、精品资料新编跨文化交际英语教程复习资料U2.Unit 2 Culture and CommunicationSome Ideas Related to Culture and Communication1. Various Definitions of Culture The word culture has numerous meanings. It is said that there are more than 150 definitions about culture. Culture was treated earlier as a complex whole of our soci
2、al traditions and as a prerequisite for us to be a member of the society. Culture can be a set of fundamental ideas, practices, and experiences of a group of people that are symbolically transmitted generation to generation through a learning process. Culture may as well refer to beliefs, norms, and
3、 attitudes that are used to guide our behaviors and solve human problem. 2. Culture as a Way to Satisfy Human Needs a) the physiological needsb) the safety needs c) the belongingness needs d) the esteem needse) the self-actualization needs Abraham Maslow, a psychologist 3. Culture as an Iceberg Cult
4、ure is compared to an iceberg that one tenth of it is above the water and nine tenths is below the water. The part above water is the overt culture which can be seen clearly, while the part below water is the deep culture which is out of our awareness. 4. Characteristics of Culturea) Culture is holi
5、stic. This characteristic underscores the complex nature of culture. As a holistic system, an education system, a religious system, an association system, a political system, and so on, the various aspects of culture are closely interrelated. In other worlds, any change in a subsystem will affect th
6、e whole system. For example, the American Civil Rights Movement brought about changes in different facets of American culture and altered American attitude, values, and behaviors.b) Culture is acquired. We begin to consciously and unconsciously learn our culture in our early life through the process
7、 of socialization or enculturation. Interaction with family members and friends is the most common way for us to learn our culture. Other sources for learning our culture are schools, churches, media, folk tales, and art. c) Culture is changing. Cultures are constantly changing over time. Some cultu
8、res are more open and accepting of change, others tend to resist it. Cultures change in the process of transmission from generation to generation, group to group, and place to place. The American Civil War and Chinas Opium War brought great social and cultural changes to both societies.d) Culture is
9、 pervasive. Like the ubiquitous air we breathe, culture penetrates into every aspect of our life and influences the way we think, the way we talk, and the way we behave. Culture combines visible and invisible things around us. Culture is the sum total of human society and its meanings.5. Some Compon
10、ents of Communication The communication process involves the following interrelated elements: the context of the communication, the participants, the message being communicated, the channels through which the communication occurs, the presence or absence of “noise”, and the verbal and nonverbal resp
11、onses known as feedback. Context； Source；Encoding； Message；Channels； Noise； Feedback； Receiver；Decoding； Receivers responseReading IWhat Is CultureComprehension questions1. Which of the definitions given above do you prefer? Why? Some may prefer a short definition, such as the one given by E. Sapir
12、or R. Benedict, for it is highly generalized and easy to remember. Some may prefer a longer one, such as Edward T. Halls definition of culture, because it provides us with a more comprehensive understanding of culture and points out the all-pervasive impact of culture on human life in different dime
13、nsions.2What have you learned from those definitions about culture? Many things can be learned from those definitions, for each definition, though not without its limitations, tells us something very important about culture or certain aspect(s) of culture.3. Do you agree that our lower needs always
14、have to be satisfied before we can try to satisfy the higher needs? Even though this is generally the case, there will still be some exceptions. Sometimes people might prefer to satisfy higher needs, for instance, esteem needs, before their lower needs, such as certain physiological needs or safety
15、needs are satisfied.4. What examples can you give about how people of different cultures achieve the same ends by taking different roads? For example, everyone has to eat in order to live and this is universally true. However, to satisfy this basic need, people of various cultures may do it in very
16、different ways: what to eat and how to eat it vary from culture to culture.5. What behaviors of ours are born with and what are learned in the cultural environment? Instinctive behaviors are behaviors that we are born with and ways of doing things in daily life, such as ways of eating, drinking, dre
17、ssing, finding shelter, making friends, marrying, and dealing with death are learned in the cultural environment.6. What other cultural differences do you know in the way people do things in their everyday life? We can also find cultural differences in ways of bringing up children, treating the elde
18、rly,greeting each other, saving and spending money, and many other things people do in everyday life.7. In what ways are the Chinese eating habits different from those of the English-speaking countries? We Chinese may enjoy something that is not usually considered as edible by theEnglish-speaking pe
19、ople. Generally we prefer to have things hot and lay much emphasis on tastes. We tend to share things with each other when we are eating with others.Reading IIElements of CommunicationComprehension questions1. What are the aspects of context mentioned above? One aspect of context is the physical set
20、ting, including location, time, light, temperature, distance between communicators, and any seating arrangements. A second aspect of context is historical. A third aspect of context is psychological. A fourth aspect of context is culture.2. In what ways would your posture, manner of speaking or atti
21、re change if you move from one physical setting to another, for example, from your home to a park, to a classroom, to a restaurant, to a funeral house, etc? Ones posture, manner of speaking or attire change from being casual to formal gradually from home to a park, to a classroom, to a restaurant, t
22、o a funeral house, etc, according to different formalness and seriousness of these situations.3. How do people acquire communication norms in their life? People acquire communication norms from their experiences in life.4. What examples can you give to describe some Chinese norms in our everyday com
23、munication? For example, it seems to be a norm in China to address ones boss by his or her title and never to express ones disapproval directly to him or her.5. How can we play both the roles of sender and receiver in communication? As senders, we form messages and attempt to communicate them to oth
24、ers through verbal and nonverbal symbols. As receivers, we process the messages sent to us and react to them both verbally and nonverbally.6. Does the sender plays a more important role than the receiver in communication? No, they are equally important for both of them are essential in the process o
25、f communication.7. In what ways do the differences between participants make communication more or less difficult? Three especially important variables affecting participants which are relationship, gender, and culture make communication more or less difficult.8. What is a symbol and what is a meani
26、ng? The pure ideas and feelings that exist in a persons mind represent meanings. The words,sounds, and actions that communicate meaning are known as symbols because they stand for the meanings intended by the person using them.9. How can meanings be transferred from one person to another? What probl
27、ems may arise in this process? A message from one person is encoded into symbols and then decoded into ideas and feelings to another person. In this process of transforming include nonverbal cues, which significantly affect the meaning created between the participants in a communication transaction.
28、10. When are unintended or conflicted meanings likely to be created? Unintended meanings are created when the decoding person receives a meaning unrelated to what the encoder thought he or she was communicating. Conflicting meanings are created when the verbal symbols are contradicted by the nonverb
29、al cues.11. Which channels do you usually prefer in communication? Why? Of the five channels, some may prefer sight. As the old saying goes, words are but wind, but seeing is believing.12. What examples can you find to show that one channel is more effective than others for transmitting certain mess
30、ages? For example, when asking a lady for a date, a young man may wear an immaculate suit and spray some perfume to show that he highly values this date with her. In this case, sight and smell are definitely more effective than words for conveying that particular message.13. What are the things that
31、 can create noises in the process of communication? Sights, sounds, and other stimuli in the environment that draw peoples attention away from intended meaning are known as external noise. Thoughts and feelings that interfere with the communication process are known as internal noise. Unintended mea
32、nings aroused by certain verbal symbols can inhibit the accuracy of decoding. This is known as semantic noise.14. What should we do to reduce the interference of noise in communication? When communicating with others, we should pay undivided attention to communication itself, avoiding being distract
33、ed by any external or internal noise. Besides, we should make sure that what we say is correctly understood by others and vice versa to prevent semantic noise from generating.15. Why is feedback a very important element of communication? Feedback is very important because it serves useful functions
34、for both senders and receivers: it provides senders with the opportunity to measure how they are coming across, and it provides receivers with the opportunity to exert some influence over the communication process.16. What will you usually do when you receive negative feedback in communication? Open
35、.Case StudyCase 5In China, it is often not polite to accept a first offer and Heping was being modest, polite and well-behaved and had every intention of accepting the beer at the second or third offer. But he had not figured on North American rules which firmly say that you do not push alcoholic be
36、verages on anyone. A person may not drink for religious reasons, he may be a reformed alcoholic, or he may be allergic. Whatever the reason behind the rule, you do not insist in offering alcohol. So unconscious and so strong are their cultural rules that the Americans equally politely never made a s
37、econd offer of beer to Heping who probably thought North Americans most uncouth. However, what we have to remember is that cultures are seldom a strict either-or in everyinstance for all people and there are always individual differences. Probably this young Chinese nurse was very different from Hep
38、ing or, unlike Heping, she may have known something about the American cultural rules and was just trying to behave like an American when she was in an American family.Case 6When a speaker says something to a hearer, there are at least three kinds of meanings involved: utterance meaning, speakers me
39、aning and hearers meaning. In the dialogue, when Litz said How long is she going to stay? she meant to say that if she knew how long her mother-in-law was going to stay in Finland, she would be able to make proper arrangements for her, such as taking her out to do some sightseeing. However, her moth
40、er-in-law overheard the conversation, and took Litzs question to mean Litz does not want me to stay for long. From the Chinese point of view, it seems to be inappropriate for Litz to ask such a question just two days after her mother-in-laws arrival. If she feels she has to ask the question, it woul
41、d be better to ask some time later and she should not let her mother-in-law hear it.Case 7Keiko insists on giving valuable gifts to her college friends, because in countries like Japan,exchanging gifts is a strongly rooted social tradition. Should you receive a gift, and dont have one to offer in re
42、turn, you will probably create a crisis. If not as serious as a crisis, one who doesnt offer a gift in return may be considered rude or impolite. Therefore, in Japan, gifts are a symbolic way to show appreciation, respect, gratitude and further relationship. Keiko obviously has taken those used item
43、s from Mary, Ed and Marion as gifts, for sheprobably doesnt know that Americans frequently donate their used household items to church or to the community. Mary, Ed and Marion would never consider those used household items given to Keiko as gifts. No wonder they felt very uncomfortable when they re
44、ceived valuable gifts in return.Case 8As the Chinese girl Amy fell in love with an American boy at that time, it seems that shepreferred to celebrate Christmas in the American way, for she wanted very much to appear the same as other American girl. She did not like to see her boyfriend feel disappoi
45、nted at the shabby Chinese Christmas. Thats why she cried when she found out her parents had invited the ministers family over for the Christmas Eve dinner. She thought the menu for the Christmas meal created by her mother a strange one because there were no roast turkey and sweet potatoes but only
46、Chinese food. How could she notice then the foods chosen by her mother were all her favorites? From this case, we can find a lot of differences between the Chinese and Western cultures in what is appropriate food for a banquet, what are good table manners, and how one should behave to be hospitable. However, one should never feel shameful just because ones culture is different from others. As Amys mother told her, you must be proud to be different, and your only shame is to have shame.