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1、Chapter 1 Introductions to Linguistics IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. 31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. 32. Displacement: It means that human languages e
2、nable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speakers knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its gram
3、matical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence. 34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The
4、 time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time. 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally
5、 defined as the scientific study of language. 42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax 44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use
6、 is called pragmatics . 45. Psycholinguistics : The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic commun
7、ication is called phonetics . 48. Morphology : The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in lan-guage is called semantics. 50. Sociolinguistics : The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguist
8、ics,. 51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to t
9、he solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness : It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity : Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con
10、-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refe
11、r to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 55. Duality : The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining
12、 properties of human language that 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 1 页，共 19 页 - - - - - - - - - distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language,
13、 58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication. 59. Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have t
14、o follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. V. Answer t
15、he following questions. 35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of el
16、ements for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most anim
17、al communication systems do not have this design feature of human language. If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.
18、 36. Why is it difficult to define language? It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrar
19、y vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail. First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are com-bined according to rules. Secondly, la
20、nguage is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same ob-ject in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the
21、symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by conven-tion . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are. The term human in the definition in
22、dicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term communication means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfil their commu-nicative needs. 62. What are the design feat
23、ures of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 1) Arbitrariness 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 2 页，共 19 页 - - - - - - - - - As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and
24、 sounds. For instance, there is no nec-essary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages , and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However,
25、language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it
26、 possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, inclu
27、ding sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can sen
28、d and receive. 3) Duality The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual so
29、unds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or dou-ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowl
30、edge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, lan
31、guage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not ge
32、netically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically trans-mitted . 63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on high (religious, literary) written lan-g
33、uage . It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way. 64. How do you understand the distinction between a s
34、ynchronic study and a diachronic study? The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de-scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - -
35、 - - 第 3 页，共 19 页 - - - - - - - - - describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time. 65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not th
36、e written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of lan-guage. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken
37、 form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue. 66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system sh
38、ared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it
39、 is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 67. How do you understand competence and per
40、formance ? American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitel
41、y large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speakers knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes bec
42、ause of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. 68. Saussures distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomskys distinctio
43、n between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences? Although Saussures distinction and Chomskys are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks a
44、t language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections
45、between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “ photo ” and “ copy ” in “ photocopy” are non-
46、motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary. VI. Analyse the following situation. 37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - -
47、- - - 第 4 页，共 19 页 - - - - - - - - - and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis collect data check against the observable facts come to a conclusion. Chapter 2 Speech SoundsIV. Explain the following terms, using examples. 31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur i
48、n isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation. 32. Suprasegmental
49、feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. Complementary distrib
50、ution : The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution. 34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can dis