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1、Page 2Rhetoric is power. Whoever does not study rhetoric will become a victim of it.-Ancient Greek wall inscription Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend.-Francis BaconPage 9UnifiedCoherent Concise
2、Clear and correct arrangement of the parts of a sentence One main idea complete in a sentence Brief and clearIdentityAn effective sentence should beEmphatic Coherent Various Unity Key pointsChange for varietyPage 10Syntactic Rhetoric 1. Conciseness2. Unity3. Coherence4. Emphasis5. Variety Page 113.1
3、 Conciseness 1. Two basic requirements of “conciseness”A) According to Jacqueline Berke (杰克林.伯克), “The first quality of good writing is economy.” She quotes William Strunk (威廉.斯特伦克) and E.B. White to illustrate the point: Page 12 A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unneces
4、sary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short or that he avoid all detail but that every word tell (=produce a noticeable effect起作用,). ( A New English Course, Leve
5、l 6, p.161)Page 13B) Francis L. Fennell, author of Collegiate English Handbook, says: Good writing does not belabor (啰嗦,赘述) the obvious, does not use six words where four words will do. And no phoniness (伪造) either - we like a writer who is blunt(=frank坦率的), who comes right to the point (说话中肯) rathe
6、r than talking like a witness at a Senate hearing (在参议院的听证会上).Page 14Conciseness means that effective sentence should not contain unnecessary words, that is, there should not be any word in the sentence that does not add something to the information. Page 15 The flower is red in color. The war ended
7、 in the year of 1945. Professor Smith is a very learned and kind professor. In my opinion, I think the second plan is better. Page 163.1.1 Two principles of conciseness1. Use active voiceSentences in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passive voice because active-voice const
8、ructions indicate clearly the performer of the action expressed in the verb. clear (active): The committee decided to postpone the vote.not as clear (passive): A decision was reached to postpone the vote. Page 172. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbsUse verbs when possible rather than noun forms kno
9、wn as nominalizations.unclear (use of nominalization):The implementation of the plan was successful.clearer:The plan was implemented successfully.Page 18More: Try to avoid using unnecessary modifiers. Try to avoid unnecessary repetitions. Page 193.2 Unity of sentence Unity is the first essential of
10、sentence structure. A unified sentence is the expression of a single complete thought in words, and consequently it produces a single-effect.Page 20 Ideas not closely related: Born in a small town in South China in 1937, he grew to be a musician. He was born in a small town in South China in 1937, a
11、nd he later became a musician.Page 21Idea incomplete: The girl is too young.* (to go to school/ to get married)Page 223.3 CoherenceCoherence means there is a clear and reasonable connection between different parts of a sentence. Page 23A. Misused Parallel Parallel Construction Phrases or clauses hav
12、ing the same function and importance must have the same grammatical form. Parallel constructions, which express parallel ideas, give emphasis, clarity, and coherence to sentences.24a) Use parallel constructions for parallel ideas:March winds and April showers bring forth May flowers. A man is judged
13、 not only by what he says but also by what he does. (by his words ; by his deeds)Page 25Let us be ruthless in our criticism, cruel to personal vanities, indifferent to age, rank or experience if these stand in our way. Let all theories be subjected to the bright clear light of practice. (Norman Beth
14、une)26 Faulty;We thought she was charming, intelligent, and a very capable young woman. He spends a great deal of money and foolishly. She works diligently and at night.Page 27Tom Clark, who is wise and intelligent, and who is our union representative, has been promoted to foreman.Tom Clark, who is
15、wise and intelligent and who is our union representative, has been promoted to foreman.28b) Use parallel constructions for comparison and contrast:He is a poet rather than a philosopher. It is better to give than to take. 29Illogical;The students attending our school are more intelligent than your s
16、chool. (the students attending your school)30c) Use parallel constructions for items in lists or outlines:I. its founding in 1900II. its development from 1900 to 1949III. its expansion from 1949 to 1966IV. its state of affairs from 1966 to 1976 V. its changes after 1976Page 31B. Vague Pronoun The ef
17、fect of pronouns is based on the readers unmistakable understanding of what they refer to. However, if readers find that they can explain one pronoun in more than one way, and different explanation leads to different ideas, then your sentence is not clear in idea. We call this kind of sentence ambig
18、uous/ambiguity. Page 32 He told his father that hed better leave as soon as possible. Here “he” is not clear, because it may refer to the father or the son. In order to make this reference clear, we may use direct speech: He told his father: Id better leave as soon as possible. or He told his father
19、 that Youd better leave as soon as possible.Page 33 I bought a new computer, but it was not very helpful. Here “it” is not clear. It may refer to the new computer, or refer to the action of buying a computer. We can also adjust it to make this sentence clear: I bought a new computer, but the machine
20、 was not very helpful or I bought a new computer, but the buying was not very helpful. Page 34C. Misplaced Modifier Modifiers help to make our writing more vivid or more exact. However, sometimes, modifiers, especially long modifiers present much difficulty. Page 35 The story he told at first sounde
21、d very terrifying. “At first” is misplaced. It may be regarded as a modifier for told, or a modifier for sounded. Maybe the following sentences are better: The first story he told sounded very terrifying. or The story he told sounded very terrifying at first. Page 363.4 Emphasis of sentence When the
22、re is an important idea, it should be expressed with emphasis.1. Arrange the meaning effectively; Page 37 The Periodic Sentence（掉尾句掉尾句） A periodic sentence is usually a long and complex sentence in which some or all of the independent clause is held back(阻拦；抑制) until the very end of the sentence so
23、that the reader cannot get the complete idea of the sentence until the whole sentence is read. In grammar, the periodic sentence is an indivisible language unit.(掉尾句是一种把句子的主要意思放在整个句子末尾，因而要读完全句才能了解该句完整含义的句子结构；从语法上看，掉尾句是一个不可分割的语言单位。) Page 38a. A simple sentence is a periodic sentence. e.g. The English
24、 professor is popular among the students.b. A complex sentence may be a periodic sentence when the main clause follows the subordinate clause , i.e. subordinate clause + main clause. e.g. When I saw him, he was quite well.c. When the adverbial comes before the main clause, the whole sentence is a pe
25、riodic sentence. e.g. Yesterday I saw him in the street.Page 39 The Loose Sentence （松散句）（松散句） Just as its name implies, the loose sentence is loose in structure.e.g. I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Saesar)He lost his empire, his family and his fountain pen.Page 40The co-ordinate sentence is also
26、 loose because each of the coordinate clauses can express a complete notion and even the order of coordinate clauses can sometimes be exchanged without affecting much of the meaning of the whole sentence.Page 41e.g. John likes sports and Jane likes music./ Jane likes music and John likes sports.Arse
27、nal win; United slip up./ United slip up; Arsenal win.有武器就会赢；团结就会出错。United we stand; divided we fall./ Divided we fall; united we stand. 团结则存；分裂则亡。Page 42A complex sentence can be a loose sentence when the main clause stands before the subordinate one(s), i.e. main clause + subordinate clause.e.g. H
28、e was quite well when I saw him. 我见到他时， 他身体很好。Page 433.5 Variety of sentenceThe purpose of seeking sentence variety is to avoid monotony in ones speech or writing so as to achieve the most satisfactory results in communication. Samuel Johnson, a noted English writer, critic and compiler, said: “The
29、joy of life is variety.（生活的乐趣在于多样化）” So variety of writing is a joy. Without variety, any text can be dull and uninteresting.Page 44 Seeking sentence variety mainly deals with the following aspects:1. For Repeated Subjects or TopicsOne of the cameras was not packed very well. It was damaged during t
30、he move Page 45A. Relative pronouns（关系代词）（关系代词）: Embed one sentence inside the other using a clause starting with one of the relative pronouns listed below. which, who, whoever, whom, that, whoseoriginal: One of the cameras was not packed very well. It was damaged during the move.revised: The camera
31、 that was not packed very well was damaged during the move.Page 46B. Participles（分词形式）（分词形式） Eliminate a be verb (am, is, was, were, are) and substitute a participle(present or passive participle)去掉be动词，用现在分词或者是过去分词代替。Original : Wei Xia was surprised to get a phone call from his sister. He was happy
32、 to hear her voice again.Revised : Surprised to get a phone call from his sister, Wei Xia was happy to hear her voice again.Page 472) Variety of sentence structureAccording to the sentence structure:n Simple sentence n Compound sentence1. Complex sentencePage 48 A simple sentence consists of a singl
33、e clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence Compound Sentences(并列句并列句): two or more independent clauses, joined by coordinating conjunctions or semicolons并列句包含两个或更多的独立的简单句，用并列连词（and, but, or等）连接，或用分号连接Page 49 Complex Sentences（复合句）（复合句）: an independent clau
34、se + one or more subordinate clauses .复合句包含一个主句和一个或更多的从句， 并用连词来表明它们之间的关系。从句可以当全句的主语、宾语、表语、定语或状语。一般来说，主句表述主要的意思， 次要从句表述次要的意思。e.g. He failed the exam because he didnt follow the teachers advice.Page 50According to their use/function, sentences aredeclarative, interrogative, imperative exclamatory.Page
35、 51From a rhetorical point of view, sentences are loose Periodic balancedPage 521. For short and choppy sentences John likes football. His wife likes football.A. Conjunction (用并列的连词用并列的连词) Combine Sentences With Conjunctions Join complete sentences, clauses, and phrases with conjunctions:and, but, o
36、r, nor, yet, for, soOriginal: John likes football. His wife likes football.Revised: John likes football and his wife likes it too.Page 53B. Subordination （替换为从属关系）（替换为从属关系） Combine short simple sentences with the same subject by turning the less important idea into a relative clause starting with on
37、e of the relative pronouns such as which, who, whoever, whom, that and whose （用关系从句表达）or an adverbial clause starting with a subordinating conjunction such as after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only, rather than, since, that, though, unless, until, when, where,
38、 whereas, wherever, whether, which and while（用状语从句表达）Page 54Original: Dazhai used to be mainly an agricultural county. It has recently attracted more industry.Revised: Dazhai, which used to be mainly an agricultural county, has recently attracted more industry.Original: The rain was heavy. We could
39、not go out of the room.Revised: Owing to the heavy rain, we could not go out of the room.Page 55Put subordinate clauses or phrases at the beginning of some sentences instead of starting each sentence with the same subject or/and using sentences of the same structure.(松散句与圆周句互换)Original: To be artist
40、 was her greatest wish and she often talked about this with her parents and friends. revised: she often said to her parents and friends that her greatest wish was to be an artist.Page 563) Variety of sentence lengthAlternate short and long sentences to avoid monotony. （长短句交替使用）（长短句交替使用）Original: I p
41、icked up a wallet from the ground. I looked at it. I couldnt see anybody nearby. I decided to give it to the police.Revised:I picked up a wallet from the ground. After I looked at it and couldnt see anybody nearby, I decided to give it to the police.Page 57 Short sentences are usually emphatic, wher
42、eas long sentences are capable of expressing complex ideas with precision, because it may contain many modifiers. Short sentences are suitable for the presentation of important facts and ideas, and long sentences for the explanation of views and theories, or the description of things with many detai
43、ls.Page 58Look at the following passage which makes good use of short sentences:Our city is on the threshold of a great era. Of this we can be sure. But in order to fulfill the promise of the future, we must be willing to work- and to spend. We need a larger police force for public protection. We ne
44、ed a modernized fire department. We need an enlarged library. We need to increase the pay scale of teachers in the public schools. We need to improve our water supply. For all these needs there is but one solution. We must see that the bond issue is approved by the voters in the November election. H
45、ere each short sentence puts forward an important suggestion. If the points were grouped into two or three longer sentences, there would not be the force and clarity of these short sentences.Page 59The following passage describes how a man saved a drowning girl: He crouched a little, spreading his h
46、ands under the water and moving them around, trying to feel for her. The dead cold pond swayed upon his chest. He moved again, a little deeper, and again, with his hands underneath, he felt all around under the water. And he touched her clothing. But evaded his fingers. He made a desperate effort to
47、 grasp it .(to be continued)Page 60 He laid her down on the bank. She was quite unconscious and running with water. He made the water come from her mouth, he worked to restore her. He did not have to work very long before he could feel the breathing begin again in her; she was breathing naturally. H
48、e worked a little longer. He could feel her live beneath his hands; she was coming back. He wiped her face, wrapped her in his overcoat, looked round into the dim, dark gray world, then lifted her and staggered down the bank and across the fields. - D. H. Lawrence The many short sentences in the abo
49、ve passage vividly describe the mans rapid movements and make the reader feel the tension the man was experiencing at the moment.61Lecture 4 Paragraph RhetoricPage 624.3 How to Develop a Paragraphs4.3.1 Development by Time 4.3.2 Development by Process4.3.3 Development by Cause and Effect4.3.4 Develo
50、pment by Example4.3.5 Development by Classification4.3.6 Development by Definition4.3.7 Development by Comparison and ContrastPage 63Page 64Page 65Page 66Structural Figures of SpeechRepetition 反复 Anaphora 首语反复 Epiphora 尾语反复 Symploce 对称式反复 Anadiplosis 蝉联反复 Antithesis对照 Parallelism 排比 Page 67 Tiger, t