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1、1、研究目的和意义在信息高速传递的社会中，国家领导人及政界高层人士的身上往往聚集着信息的热点，他们的活动场所又常常是信息多发区和敏感区。因此， 搞时事政治报道少不了采访高层人士。综观国内外各大新闻机构，无不投入大量人力物力，对政界高层人士实行“盯人”式的采访，以防漏掉随时可能由高层人士引发或透露的重大新闻。对国家领导人及政界高层人士的政治访谈不仅能够准确及时的了解世界政坛各大新闻, 而且也能够对世界的政治经济的现状和发展有更加准确的了解、判断和推测。对于政治访谈国内外已经有了很多的研究, 包括从人际意义、 话语标记语的语际功能以及模糊限制语的语境顺应等方面进行的研究, 但是 , 从会话含义的角
2、度对政治访谈的研究少之甚少。会话含义在语用学中指根据合作原则推断出来的意义，用以弥补言语形式与其表达意义之间的空缺。合作原则及其各项准则是人类交际的一种监控因素，是参与者在交际中必须遵守的深层设想。本文目的就是要从格莱斯合作原则与利奇礼貌原则的遵守与违背的角度来研究俄罗斯电视台对习近平主席的的采访中的会话含义。通过研究与分析在习近平回答记者问题中对合作原则和礼貌原则的遵守和违背, 从而得出其话语间的含义, 我们能够了解到的习近平主席的性格特点、外交原则、我国与俄罗斯之间的关系状况以及两国之间未来的发展。此外, 习近平在回答记者问题时需要遵守合作原则和礼貌原则中的一些原则, 以示习近平个人在整个
3、谈话过程中的友好态度以及我们整个国家对外交往的友好合作原则。但是 , 也必定会违背其中一些准则,从而我们得出会话含义, 分析出其在外交当中的巧妙策略。因此 , 本文对政治访谈中的会话含义的研究具有理论意义和现实意义等多重意义。2、国内外研究现状美国语言哲学家Grice 于 1967 年在哈佛大学的讲座演讲会上, 提出了具有重要意义和深远影响的“会话含义理论”(Conversational Implicature)。Grice认为真正的会话含义理论不是单纯从语言系统内部( 语音、语法、语义等) 去研究语言本身所要表达的意义，而是透过语境，通过透视语境与话语的关联性，进而研究话语的真正含义，解释话
4、语所表达的言外之意。 谈话间的双方在对话中表现出一定程度上的合作欲望，并努力使之付诸于实践，Grice称之为合作原则。近几年随着语用学的发展和研究的不断深入，人们对影响会话含义理解有了更深入的研究, 尤其是从语料的角度研究会话含义是几年来的热点之一，受到语言学者的普遍关注 ; 伴随着国内外语用学的快速发展，会话含义的研究范围及其应用程度已经越来越广泛。合作原则、会话含义等理论由最初的仅为书本上的理论研究发展到现如今对小说、戏剧、影视剧、脱口秀中的人物角色的语言研究，为读者能够更透彻、更深入、更鲜明、更好地理解说话人及作者的意图做出了巨大贡献。在 1967 年哈佛大学的威廉.詹姆士讲座上， 格赖
5、斯提出了“合作原则”( 尽量使你的话语在发出时能符合当时你所参与的交谈的共同目的或方向) 与“会话准则” ( 量的准则，质的准则，相关准则， 方式准则 ) 两个重要概念， 借此探索会话含义的推导途径。作为会话含义产生的前提，合作原则及其准则一经提出便受到广大学者的密切关注。在对合作原则及其准则进行增删、修正的过程中，一些西方学者发展和完善了自己的理论，创立了许多脍炙人口的语用原则。这些原则，按其作者对待合作原则的态度，可大致分为四类。1)替代型 : 如卡舍尔的“理性原则”;2) 简化型: 如斯帕伯和威尔逊的“关联原则” ;3) 补充型: 如利奇的“礼貌原则” ;4) 修正型: 如列文森的“会话
6、含义三原则”。我国对于合作原则及其准则的引介始于20 世纪 80 年代。随后20 多年间，有关合作原则的研究层出不穷，一度成为语用学研究的核心内容。就合作原则研究在我国的发展过程来看，它主要经历了引介、研究、应用三个阶段。引介阶段主要引进和介绍合作原则及其准则的概念和内容;研究阶段则在理解的基础上对合作原则及其下属的四条准则提出不同的看法;名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 1 页，共 7 页 - - - - - - - - - 应用阶段主要尝试将合作原则及准则应用到各类
7、口头或书面文体中去，验证合作原则及其准则的普遍适用性或用以解释会话含义的生成机制。大体说来，我国的合作原则研究有以下两个特点 :1) 研究主要集中在90 年代 ;2) 研究的热点是合作原则的应用问题。尽管合作原则研究取得了一定成绩，但在研究过程中所发现的若干问题不容忽视, 包括 :1) 忽视合作原则的哲学背景;2) 省略合作原则总则的内容;3) 混淆“原则”和“准则”这两个概念。这些问题在一定程度上影响了有关介绍的质量，而且容易误导读者。在 20 世纪 50 年代， E.Goffman 就从社会学角度提出了“面子”问题，他认为人际交往中无时无刻不涉及“脸面工作”，这一方而表现在人的行为受到面子
8、的约束，另一方而人们也期待他人对自己的面子给予考虑。在Goffman 的研究基础之上，P.Brown 和 S. Levinson将礼貌行为分为两种:(1) 积极礼貌， 即满足对方面子上的正面要求( 如表扬对方的地位、成就等);(2)消极礼貌，即满足对方面子上的反面要求( 如尽量不侵犯对方的人身、财产、自由等) 。Leech 的“礼貌原则”的提出则进一步完善了Brown Levinson 的理论， 为礼貌行为在交际中的实现提供了方法论。关于礼貌原则在中国的研究成果，主要有两个学者的代表理论观点:( 一) 徐盛桓的新礼貌原则构想。徐盛桓的新礼貌原则构想包含促进各方的关系和运用礼貌策略两个内容。促进
9、各方关系指注意自身一方，尊重对方及考虑第三方。他认为要充分注意交际时在场的第三方，不说影响他们身份地位的话，如果有需要，可以说适合他们身份地位的话。运用礼貌策略包括积极策略和消极策略。( 二) 顷曰国的礼貌原则。在利奇“礼貌原则”的基础上，我国学者顾曰国开辟了这方面的先河，归纳了多条礼貌准则“自卑而尊人”、贬己尊人准则、“上下有义，贵贱有分，长幼有等”、称呼准则“彬彬有礼”、文雅准则、“脸”“面子”、求同准则“有德者必有言”及德、言、行准则。新闻访谈作为电视节目的一种重要形式，已经成为信息传播的一种必不可少的手段。英语新闻访谈中主持人与来自不同文化背景的人畅所欲言，带来不同文化的观点，开拓了中
10、国电视观众的眼界。随着这类节目的不断涌现，研究者也更多地将注意力转向这一方面。社会学和语义学方面的研究己经非常充分，而语用学方面的研究还有待发展。3、研究路线本文以俄罗斯电视台对习近平主席的采访为主要语料, 运用会话原则对比分析习近平在回答记者问题当中的对话。首先, 本文介绍了所运用的基本理论知识, 即对会话含义的分析起关键作用的的合作原则和礼貌原则, 包括格莱斯的合作原则极其次则, 利奇的礼貌原则及其次则, 礼貌原则与合作原则的关系礼貌原则是对合作原则的补充, 以及通过合作原则和礼貌原则所产生的会话含义。其次, 介绍了合作原则和礼貌原则的实际应用情况, 分别介绍了在俄罗斯对习近平的采访中、在
11、芮成钢对奥巴马的采访中及在李克强回答记者问当中对合作原则和礼貌原则的遵守和违背。再次, 应用上述基本理论, 以俄罗斯电视台对习近平的采访为主要语料 , 研究分析在整个采访会话中双方对合作原则及礼貌原则的遵守和违背及所产生的会话含义 , 从而了解双方在会话中的深层含义和深层意图。最后 , 进行对比分析 ; 对比分析三组政治采访中 , 不同的政治角色在接受采访时对合作原则和礼貌原则的遵守和违背, 及其原因 , 以及如何利用对这些原则的遵守和违背来避免双方的不愉快、进行间接表达及间接推动国家之间的友好相处 , 进而分析国家重要领导人在接受政治的采访中体现的高超的外交策略。4、进度安排 2013-20
12、14学年第二学期8-9 周交初稿，教师审阅并提出修改意见，改初稿； 2013-2014学年第二学期10-11 周交二稿，教师审阅并提出修改意见，改第二稿； 2013-2014学年第二学期12-13 周交三稿，教师审阅并提出修改意见，改第三稿； 2013-2014学年第二学期14-15 周交第四稿，教师审阅，定稿；名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 2 页，共 7 页 - - - - - - - - - 2013-2014学年第二学期16 周打印、装订论文，准备答辩； 20
13、13-2014学年第二学期17 周参加毕业论文答辩。5、文献综述 What happens after an political election, or a presidential speech,when the campaign has been fought, the polls have closed, or the leaders of a country have finished or are making a trip abroad, some international news that have arouse mass dispute inside and outsid
14、e the state? The major television stations start their interviews. Political interview is all along a media of communication of great stature, and is thus well worth of social and academic attention. With the increase of international communication, political interviews have been thrown to people on
15、e after another. Generally speaking, political interviews are of the following characteristics: firstly, two parts, namely the interviewees and interviewers, are involved. Secondly, the interviewers are with specific interviewing tasks to be finished in such limited time. They are required to obtain
16、 valuable information as to hot topics of the time. In this regard, political interviews can not be separated with sensitivities both at home and abroad. Thirdly, politicians will seemingly cooperate since they have agreed to be interviewed, but they may grasp each interview to air their political v
17、iews to influence the public. The final but the not the last characteristic I wants to mention is the audience of the political interviews that has a potential majority of the audience. They are politically, financially, or culturally related to the topics the interviews will cover, and may belong t
18、o special interest groups. Therefore, any improper answer on the part of the politicians may offend the interest groups they stand for. In the light of this situation, politicians must be thoughtful to give responsible answers. In normal situations, politicians would try hard to strike a balance bet
19、ween safeguarding his personal interests and meeting the expectation of the large number of audience, which makes us feel that appropriate use of conversational strategies is often a must in political interviews. Associated with the features of CI mentioned above, we can understand why it is an impo
20、rtant conversational strategy in political interviews. Significance of conversational implicature in political interviews Conversational implicature is something which is implied in conversation, that is something which is left implicit in actual language use. Most of the researches of conversationa
21、l implicature are related to the general strata of daily communication. Most of the examples of the conversational implicature in a series of pragmatic books concern family life, daily social communication, correspondence and restaurant communication. The participants in these conversations are norm
22、ally husband and wife, old and young, teacher and student. The relationship between them is free and familiar. Therefore their conversation usually happens in a daily context. There are few researches of the conversational implicature in complex situations such as political interviews. However, the
23、conversational implicature generated by violating the Cooperative Principle proves to be the basis on which the language and pragmatic strategies are built up in political interviews. In political interviews, the relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee is very formal. As a result, p
24、eople will incline to be more cooperative 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 3 页，共 7 页 - - - - - - - - - and they will try their best to observe the Cooperative Principle during the conversation. Inevitably, there may also be disagreement and divergence o
25、f views between the two parties and sometimes some information is secret and cannot be revealed to the other party. Considering the fact that the special context of political interviews may involve the diplomatic relation between different countries or will influence the success of the economic coop
26、eration, the two parts tend to be more polite. So sometimes the speaker will flout the maxims in order not to threaten the listeners face. The speakers flouting of a maxim combined with the listeners assumption that the speaker has not really abandoned the Cooperative Principle leads to an implicatu
27、re. From the above, one can see that the research of conversational implicatures has great significance inpolitical interviews. The American linguistic philosopher Grice proposed the significant and far-reaching Conversational Implicature Theory in the lecture at Harvard University in 1967. Grice be
28、lieves that the real Conversational Implicature is the theory that studies about the real implication of communications and explains the implicature of conversations. It is not simply to study the meaning of language expressing itself from the language internal system (phonetics, grammar, semantics,
29、 etc.) but through the context and the relevance of context and discourse. When the two parties in communication show their certain willingness of cooperation and try to make them work, Grice calls it cooperative principle. H.P. Grice believes that people could not talk randomly in the dialogue and
30、assemble the unrelated words together; on the contrary, they tend to show a certain degree of cooperation desire and make efforts to put it into practice make a due contribution according to the need. Therefore, all the parties in the conversation need to abide by a kind of cognitive behavior princi
31、ple and Grice takes the corresponding similarity with this principle according to the four major categories of philosophers cognition about the world, which is called the Cooperative Principle: (each maxim contains several sub-maxims) Cooperative Principle can be concretely manifested for four maxim
32、s while each maxim still has several sub-maxims. QUANTITY maxim: 1、Make your contribution as informative as is required(for the current purpases of the exchange). 2、Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. QUALITY maxim Try to make your contribution one that is true. 1、Do not
33、 say what you believe to be false. 2、Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. RELATION maxim Be relevant. MANNER maxim Be perspicuous 1、Avoid obscurity of expression. 2、Avoid ambiguity. 3、Be brief(avoid prolixity) 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - -
34、 - - 第 4 页，共 7 页 - - - - - - - - - 4、Be orderly.(Linguistics:A Course Book Fourth Edition by Hu Zhuanglin) These maxims show how the participants cooperate with each other: the speaker tries to tell the reality; has content and contacts; to be clear and avoid being ambiguous; to be concise and organ
35、ized; also the hearer needs to use the same standard to understand the words. The key to production of Conversational Implicature lays on the attitude that both parties hold in the immediate communication. Whether it is in compliance with each criterion for the maxim or to defy each one, people can
36、also obtain the inference and judgment beyond semantic content of the sentence. Each of the above four maxims has its different importance: the first three related to the content of the conversation and the last one to the conversational styles. If people abide by all the maxims above, people can co
37、mmunicate efficiently and correctly. Acting cooperatively, people try to build up their interlocutors positive faces, while trying to avoid posing threats to their negative faces.Brown and Levison put forward The Face Theory in 1978. As a technical term, face means the public self-image of a person.
38、 It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. Politeness, in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another persons face (Yule, 2000:60). A persons negative face is the need to be independent, t
39、o have freedom of action and not to be imposed on by others. A persons positive face is the need to be accepted, even liked, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants are shared by others. If a speaker says something self-image, that represents a threa
40、t to another individuals expectations it is described as a face threatening act. Alternatively, given the regarding possibility that some action might be interpreted as a threat to anothers face, the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat. This is called a face saving act. (Yule, 20
41、00: 61-62) The speaker sometimes has to flout the maxim of Cooperative Principle to save the other parts face. Leech put forward another pragmatic principle: Politeness Principle. There are six maxims of Politeness Principle. Each maxim has two sub-maxims. 1 .Tact maxim a. Minimise benefit to self b
42、. Maximise benefit to other 2. Generosity maxim a. Minimise cost to other b. Maximise cost to self 3. Approbation maxim a Minimise dispraise of other b Maximise praise of other 4. Modesty maxim a. Minimise praise of self b. Maximise dispraise of self 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
43、- - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 5 页，共 7 页 - - - - - - - - - 5. Agreement maxim a. Minimise disagreement between self and other b. Maximise agreement between self and other 6. Sympathy maxim a. Minimise antipathy between self and other b. Maximise sympathy between self and other(An Introduction To Lin
44、guistics by Chen Linhua) Leechs Politeness Principle is supposed to collaborate with, and even rescue the Cooperative Principle and its associated maxims because Grices Cooperative Principle only explains the relationship between the literal meaning and the practical meaning of the utterance. The Co
45、operative Principle expounds how the conversational implicature takes place and how to understand it; but it does not say why people choose to express their real intention by deliberately flouting the maxims. Politeness Principle helps to explain the phenomenon. In many situations, if people obey th
46、e Cooperative Principle and say their intentions directly, they sometimes will hurt the other parts feelings. Conclusion The present study demonstrates that the political interview exhibits the conversational implicatures observed in naturally- occurring conversations. From the analysis of this poli
47、tical interview, it is easy to notice the high frequency of the occurrences of the violation of maxims. The violations are deliberately used as the pragmatic strategies to regulate the conversation. Most of the conversational implicatures are caused by flouting the maxims of quantity. The cases of f
48、louting the maxim of quality and the maxim of relation seldom appear in the political interview. The reason lies in that the interviews of politicians are almost formal and the interviewees normally will not say what they believe to be false or irrelevant. If the politician choose to flout the maxim
49、 of quality and the maxim of relation, he or she will be considered to be not serious or leave the impression on the public that he does not respect the predicament for questioner. Nevertheless, the interviewer often put the politician in a some of the questions are very difficult to answer directly
50、. Therefore, the politician chooses to evade those questions or answer them selectively or treat them from the indirect sources. 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 6 页，共 7 页 - - - - - - - - - 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理