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1、What differences are there in the way in which individual learners acquire a second language? Age Language aptitude Learning styles Motivation Personality sex Social factors:Social class Affective states: Anxietygeneral factorsAge what do you think of bilinggual kindergartens? Can they benefit child
2、rens SLA? Children vs. teenager vs.adults(pronunciation/ rate/grammmar) Critical period hypothesis (pronunciation/ grammar) 1.学习外语的开始年龄并不在很大程度上影响习得的程序，任何年龄开始学习一门外语都有可能获得成功。 2.学习外语的起始年龄较明显地影响习得的速度和效率。在语法、词义和词汇方面，少年比儿童和成年人表现得更为出色（如果学习时间相同） 3.学习时间长短影响习得的成功程度，而学习起始年龄对将达到的精密程度起着决定作用，尤其是语音方面。（束定芳，庄智象） 4.刘
3、润清认为外语学习的最佳开始年龄并非越早越好，而是大约在九岁左右。Language aptitude 1. phonimic coding-encoding 语音编码解码能力 2.grammar sencitivity 语法敏感性 3. language analytic ability 归纳性语言学习能力 4. memory 联想记忆能力Language aptitude 1. phonimic coding-encoding 语音编码解码能力 2.grammar sencitivity 语法敏感性 3. language analytic ability 归纳性语言学习能力 4. memor
4、y 联想记忆能力Learning styles Field dependence/ Field independence origin Reflectivity/ impulsivity 审慎/冲动 Visual/auditory/kinaesthetic/tactile Holistic/analytic . children vs. Adolescents/adults Males vs. Females Object-oriented jobs vs. People-oriented jobs Urban,technological societies vs. Rural,agraira
5、n societies Rigid social structures vs. Free social structures Group-centred people vs. Individualistic people Field independent Field dependentAdolescents/adultschildrenMalesFemalesObject-oriented jobsPeople-oriented jobsUrban,technological societiesRural,agrairan societiesFree social structuresRig
6、id social structuresIndividualistic peopleGroup-centred peopleMotivation Intrinsic /extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation derives from interest. Extrinsic motivation emphasizes external rewards or punishements. Intrinsic motivation:long-term success Extrinsic motivation: short-term success Integ
7、rative/instrumental motivation Integrative motivation involves a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language group. Instrumental motivation concerns the practical value and advantages of learning a new language. Resultative motivation:result of positive
8、learning experiences. Machiavellian motivation: motivated to learn because of negative attitude towards the target language community. In this case, negative feelings may lead to a desire to manipulate and overcome the people of the target language.Personality Introvert / extrovert CALP(Cognitive Ac
9、ademic Language Proficiency ):formal academic learning BICS(Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills ):language skills needed in social situations -Jim Cummins sex verbal fluency. memorizing complex forms. computing compositional rules.sex Women outperform men on verbal fluency. Women better at memo
10、rizing complex forms. Men better at computing compositional rules.Social factors: Social class: middle vs. working class CALP(Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency ):formal academic learning BICS(Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills ):language skills needed in social situations Affective state
11、s Secure & Free of stress Fear; anger; self-pity; sadness;anxiety,Anxiety Trait anxiety气质型: a more permanent predisposition to be anxious,perhaps best viewed as an aspect of personality. State anxiety状态型:apprehension that is experienced at a particular moment in time as a response to a definite situ
12、ation. It is a combination of trait and situation-specific anxiety. Situation-specific anxiety: aroused by a specific type of situation or event such as public speaking, examinations, or class participation.Foreign Language Anxiety: communication apprehension;fear of negative evaluation; testsWhat c
13、auses state or situation anxiety? I was quite frightened when asked questions again. I dont know why; the teacher does not frighten me, but my mind is blocked when Im asked questions. I fear lest I give the wrong answer and will discourage the teacher as well as be the laughing stock of the class ma
14、ybe. Anyway, I felt really stupid and helpless in class.Face, CompetitivenessWhat effects does anxiety have on learning? Facilitating anxiety:motivate the learners to fight the new learning task, prompting them to make extra efforts to conquer the task Debilitating anxiety causes the learner to flee
15、 the task in order to avoid anxiety.Language learning Anxietylearning effiencyAnxiety levelModerate anxietyStage Type of anxietyEffect on learning Beginner Post-beginnerlaterStage Type of anxietyEffect on learning Begin-ner Very little-restricted to state anxietynonePost-begin-nerSituation anxiety developes if learner develops negative expectations based on bad learning experiencesLearner expects to be nervous and performs poorlylaterPoor performance and continued bad learning experiences result in increased anxietyContinued poor performance