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1、Financial Statement Analysis of Leverage and How It Informs About Profitability and Price-to-Book RatiosDORON NISSIM, STEPHEN H. PENMANABSTRACTThis paper presents a financial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage that arises in financing activities from leverage that arises in operations. T
2、he analysis yields two leveraging equations, one for borrowing to finance operations and one for borrowing in the course of operations. These leveraging equations describe how the two types of leverage affect book rates of return on equity. An empirical analysis shows that the financial statement an
3、alysis explains cross-sectional differences in current and future rates of return as well as price-to-book ratios, which are based on expected rates of return on equity. The paper therefore concludes that balance sheet line items for operating liabilities are priced differently than those dealing wi
4、th financing liabilities. Accordingly, financial statement analysis that distinguishes the two types of liabilities informs on future profitability and aids in the evaluation of appropriate price-to-book ratios.Keywords: financing leverage; operating liability leverage; rate of return on equity; pri
5、ce-to-book ratioLeverage is traditionally viewed as arising from financing activities: Firms borrow to raise cash for operations. This paper shows that, for the purposes of analyzing profitability and valuing firms, two types of leverage are relevant, one indeed arising from financing activities but
6、 another from operating activities. The paper supplies a financial statement analysis of the two types of leverage that explains differences in shareholder profitability and price-to-book ratios.The standard measure of leverage is total liabilities to equity. However, while some liabilitieslike bank
7、 loans and bonds issuedare due to financing, other liabilitieslike trade payables, deferred revenues, and pension liabilitiesresult from transactions with suppliers, customers and employees in conducting operations. Financing liabilities are typically traded in well-functioning capital markets where
8、 issuers are price takers. In contrast, firms are able to add value in operations because operations involve trading in input and output markets that are less perfect than capital markets. So, with equity valuation in mind, there are a priori reasons for viewing operating liabilities differently fro
9、m liabilities that arise in financing . Our research asks whether a dollar of operating liabilities on the balance sheet is priced differently from a dollar of financing liabilities. As operating and financing liabilities are components of the book value of equity, the question is equivalent to aski
10、ng whether price-to-book ratios depend on the composition of book values. The price-to-book ratio is determined by the expected rate of return on the book value so, if components of book value command different price premiums, they must imply different expected rates of return on book value. Accordi
11、ngly, the paper also investigates whether the two types of liabilities are associated with differences in future book rates of return.Standard financial statement analysis distinguishes shareholder profitability that arises from operations from that which arises from borrowing to finance operations.
12、 So, return on assets is distinguished from return on equity, with the difference attributed to leverage. However, in the standard analysis, operating liabilities are not distinguished from financing liabilities. Therefore, to develop the specifications for the empirical analysis, the paper presents
13、 a financial statement analysis that identifies the effects of operating and financing liabilities on rates of return on book valueand so on price-to-book ratioswith explicit leveraging equations that explain when leverage from each type of liability is favorable or unfavorable.The empirical results
14、 in the paper show that financial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage in operations from leverage in financing also distinguishes differences in contemporaneous and future profitability among firms. Leverage from operating liabilities typically levers profitability more than financing lev
15、erage and has a higher frequency of favorable effects. Accordingly, for a given total leverage from both sources, firms with higher leverage from operations have higher price-to-book ratios, on average. Additionally, distinction between contractual and estimated operating liabilities explains furthe
16、r differences in firms profitability and their price-to-book ratios.Our results are of consequence to an analyst who wishes to forecast earnings and book rates of return to value firms. Those forecastsand valuations derived from themdepend, we show, on the composition of liabilities. The financial s
17、tatement analysis of the paper, supported by the empirical results, shows how to exploit information in the balance sheet for forecasting and valuation.The paper proceeds as follows. Section 1 outlines the financial statements analysis that identifies the two types of leverage and lays out expressio
18、ns that tie leverage measures to profitability. Section 2 links leverage to equity value and price-to-book ratios. The empirical analysis is in Section 3, with conclusions summarized in Section 4.1 Financial Statement Analysis of LeverageThe following financial statement analysis separates the effec
19、ts of financing liabilities and operating liabilities on the profitability of shareholders equity. The analysis yields explicit leveraging equations from which the specifications for the empirical analysis are developed. Shareholder profitability, return on common equity, is measured asReturn on com
20、mon equity (ROCE) = comprehensive net income common equity (1)Leverage affects both the numerator and denominator of this profitability measure. Appropriate financial statement analysis disentangles the effects of leverage. The analysis below, which elaborates on parts of Nissim and Penman (2001), b
21、egins by identifying components of the balance sheet and income statement that involve operating and financing activities. The profitability due to each activity is then calculated and two types of leverage are introduced to explain both operating and financing profitability and overall shareholder
22、profitability.1.1 Distinguishing the Profitability of Operations from the Profitability of Financing ActivitiesWith a focus on common equity (so that preferred equity is viewed as a financial liability), the balance sheet equation can be restated as follows:Common equity =operating assetsfinancial a
23、ssetsoperating liabilitiesFinancial liabilities (2) The distinction here between operating assets (like trade receivables, inventory and property, plant and equipment) and financial assets (the deposits and marketable securities that absorb excess cash) is made in other contexts. However, on the lia
24、bility side, financing liabilities are also distinguished here from operating liabilities. Rather than treating all liabilities as financing debt, only liabilities that raise cash for operationslike bank loans, short-term commercial paper and bondsare classified as such. Other liabilitiessuch as acc
25、ounts payable, accrued expenses, deferred revenue, restructuring liabilities and pension liabilitiesarise from operations. The distinction is not as simple as current versus long-term liabilities; pension liabilities, for example, are usually long-term, and short-term borrowing is a current liabilit
26、y.Rearranging terms in equation (2),Common equity = (operating assetsoperating liabilities)(financial liabilitiesfinancial assets)Or,Common equity = net operating assetsnet financing debt (3)This equation regroups assets and liabilities into operating and financing activities. Net operating assets a
27、re operating assets less operating liabilities. So a firm might invest in inventories, but to the extent to which the suppliers of those inventories grant credit, the net investment in inventories is reduced. Firms pay wages, but to the extent to which the payment of wages is deferred in pension lia
28、bilities, the net investment required to run the business is reduced. Net financing debt is financing debt (including preferred stock) minus financial assets. So, a firm may issue bonds to raise cash for operations but may also buy bonds with excess cash from operations. Its net indebtedness is its
29、net position in bonds. Indeed a firm may be a net creditor (with more financial assets than financial liabilities) rather than a net debtor.The income statement can be reformulated to distinguish income that comes from operating and financing activities:Comprehensive net income = operating income ne
30、t financing expense (4)Operating income is produced in operations and net financial expense is incurred in the financing of operations. Interest income on financial assets is netted against interest expense on financial liabilities (including preferred dividends) in net financial expense. If interes
31、t income is greater than interest expense, financing activities produce net financial income rather than net financial expense. Both operating income and net financial expense (or income ) are after tax.3 Equations (3) and (4) produce clean measures of after-tax operating profitability and the borro
32、wing rate:Return on net operating assets (RNOA) = operating income net operating assets (5)andNet borrowing rate (NBR) = net financing expense net financing debt (6)RNOA recognizes that profitability must be based on the net assets invested in operations. So firms can increase their operating profit
33、ability by convincing suppliers, in the course of business, to grant or extend credit terms; credit reduces the investment that shareholders would otherwise have to put in the business. Correspondingly, the net borrowing rate, by excluding non-interest bearing liabilities from the denominator, gives
34、 the appropriate borrowing rate for the financing activities.Note that RNOA differs from the more common return on assets (ROA), usually defined as income before after-tax interest expense to total assets. ROA does not distinguish operating and financing activities appropriately. Unlike ROA, RNOA ex
35、cludes financial assets in the denominator and subtracts operating liabilities. Nissim and Penman (2001) report a median ROA for NYSE and AMEX firms from 19631999 of only 6.8%, but a median RNOA of 10.0%much closer to what one would expect as a return to business operations.1.2 Financial Leverage an
36、d its Effect on Shareholder Profitability From expressions (3) through (6), it is straightforward to demonstrate that ROCE is a weighted average of RNOA and the net borrowing rate, with weights derived from equation (3):ROCE= net operating assets common equity RNOAnet financing debtcommon equity net
37、 borrowing rate (7)Additional algebra leads to the following leveraging equation:ROCE = RNOAFLEV ( RNOAnet borrowing rate ) (8)where FLEV, the measure of leverage from financing activities, isFinancing leverage (FLEV) =net financing debt common equity (9)The FLEV measure excludes operating liabiliti
38、es but includes (as a net against financing debt) financial assets. If financial assets are greater than financial liabilities, FLEV is negative. The leveraging equation (8) works for negative FLEV (in which case the net borrowing rate is the return on net financial assets).This analysis breaks shar
39、eholder profitability, ROCE, down into that which is due to operations and that which is due to financing. Financial leverage levers the ROCE over RNOA, with the leverage effect determined by the amount of financial leverage (FLEV) and the spread between RNOA and the borrowing rate. The spread can b
40、e positive (favorable) or negative (unfavorable).1.3 Operating Liability Leverage and its Effect on Operating ProfitabilityWhile financing debt levers ROCE, operating liabilities lever the profitability of operations, RNOA. RNOA is operating income relative to net operating assets, and net operating
41、 assets are operating assets minus operating liabilities. So, the more operating liabilities a firm has relative to operating assets, the higher its RNOA, assuming no effect on operating income in the numerator. The intensity of the use of operating liabilities in the investment base is operating li
42、ability leverage:Operating liability leverage (OLLEV) =operating liabilities net operating assets (10)Using operating liabilities to lever the rate of return from operations may not come for free, however; there may be a numerator effect on operating income. Suppliers provide what nominally may be i
43、nterest-free credit, but presumably charge for that credit with higher prices for the goods and services supplied. This is the reason why operating liabilities are inextricably a part of operations rather than the financing of operations. The amount that suppliers actually charge for this credit is
44、difficult to identify. But the market borrowing rate is observable. The amount that suppliers would implicitly charge in prices for the credit at this borrowing rate can be estimated as a benchmark:Market interest on operating liabilities= operating liabilitiesmarket borrowing ratewhere the market b
45、orrowing rate, given that most credit is short term, can be approximated by the after-tax short-term borrowing rate. This implicit cost is benchmark, for it is the cost that makes suppliers indifferent in supplying credit suppliers are fully compensated if they charge implicit interest at the cost b
46、orrowing to supply the credit. Or, alternatively, the firm buying the goods or services is indifferent between trade credit and financing purchases at the borrowing rate.To analyze the effect of operating liability leverage on operating profitability, we define:Return on operating assets (ROOA) =(op
47、erating incomemarket interest on operating liabilities)operating assets (11)The numerator of ROOA adjusts operating income for the full implicit cost of trade credit. If suppliers fully charge the implicit cost of credit, ROOA is the return of operating assets that would be earned had the firm no op
48、erating liability leverage. suppliers do not fully charge for the credit, ROOA measures the return fro operations that includes the favorable implicit credit terms from suppliers.Similar to the leveraging equation (8) for ROCE, RNOA can be expressed as:RNOA = ROOA OLLEV (ROOAmarket borrowing rate )