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1、Marketing Channels and Value NetworksMost producers do not sell their goods directly to the final users between them stands a set of intermediaries performing a variety of functions. These intermediaries constitute a marketing channel also called a trade channel or distribution channel .Formally mar
2、keting channels are sets of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption. They are the set of pathways a product or service follows after production culminating in purchase and use by the final end user.Some intermediaries-such
3、as wholesalers and retailers-buy take title to and resell the merchandise they are called merchants. Others-brokers manufacturers representatives sales agents-search for customers and may negotiate on the producers behalf but do not take title to the goods they are called agents. Still others-transp
4、ortation companies independent warehouses banks advertising agencies-assist in the distribution process but neither take title to goods nor negotiate purchases or sales they are called facilitators.The Importance of ChannelsA marketing channel system is the particular set of marketing channels a fir
5、m employs and decisions about it are among the most critical ones management faces. In the United States channel members collectively have earned margins that account for 30 to 50 of the ultimate selling price. In contrast advertising typically has accounted for less than 5 to 7 of the final price.
6、Marketing channels also represent a substantial opportunity cost. One of the chief roles of marketing channels is to convert potential buyers into profitable customers. Marketing channels must not just serve markets they must also make markets.The channels chosen affect all other marketing decisions
7、. The companys pricing depends on whether it uses mass merchandisers or high-quality boutiques. The firms sale force and advertising decisions depend on how much training and motivation dealers need. In addition channel decisions include relatively long-term commitments with other fins as well as a
8、set of policies and procedures. When an automaker signs up independent dealers to sell its automobiles the automaker cannot buy them out the next day and replace them with company-owned outlets. But at the same time channel choices themselves depend on the companys marketing strategy with respect to
9、 segmentation targeting and positioning. Holistic marketers ensure that marketing decisions in all these different areas are made to collectively maximize value.In managing its intermediaries the firm must decide how much effort to devote to push versus pull marketing. A push strategy uses the manuf
10、acturers sales force trade promotion money or other means to induce intermediaries to carry promote and sell the product to end users. Push strategy is appropriate where there is low brand loyalty in a category brand choice is made in the store the product is an impulse item and product benefits are
11、 well understood. In a pull strategy the manufacturer uses advertising promotion and other forms of communication to persuade consumers to demand the product from intermediaries thus inducing the intermediaries to order it .Pull strategy is appropriate when there is high brand loyalty and high invol
12、vement in the category when consumers are able to perceive differences between brands and when they choose the brand before they go to the store. For years drug companies aimed ads solely at doctors and hospitals but in 1997 the FDA issued guidelines for TV ads that opened the way for pharmaceutical
13、s to reach consumers directly. This is particularly evident in the burgeoning business of prescription sleep aids.Top marketing companies such as Coca-Cola Intel and Nike skillfully employ both push and pull strategies. Marketing activities directed towards the channel as part of a push strategy are
14、 more effective when accompanied by a well-designed and well-executed pull strategy that activates consumer demand. On the other hand without at least some consumer interest it can be very difficult to gain much channel acceptance and supportChannelDevelopmentAnewfirmtypicallystartsasalocaloperation
15、sellinginafairlycircumscribed marketusingexistingintermediaries.Thenumberofsuchintermediariesisapttobe limited:afewmanufacturerssalesagentsafewwholesalersseveralestablished retailersafewtruckingcompaniesandafewwarehouses.Decidingonthebest channelsmightnotbeaproblemtheproblemisoftentoconvincetheavail
16、able intermediariestohandlethefirmsline.If the firm is successful it might branch into new markets and use different channels in different markets. In smaller markets the firm might sell directly to retailers in larger markets it might sell through distributors. In rural areas it might work with gen
17、eral-goods merchants in urban areas with limited-line merchants. In one part of the country it might grant exclusive franchises in another it might through outlets to handle the merchandise. In one country it might use international sales agents in another it might partner with a local firm.Internat
18、ionalmarketsposedistinctchallenges.Customersshoppinghabitscan varybycountriesandmanyretailerssuchasGermanysAlditheUnitedKingdoms TescoandSpainsZarahaveredefinedthemselvestoacertaindegreewhenenteringanewmarkettobettertailortheirimagetolocalneedsandwants.Retailersthathave largelystucktothesamesellingf
19、ormularegardlessofgeographysuchasEddie BauerMarksampSpencerandWalt-Mart-marketingstrategyforItsentranceinto1MUS.markettoslackdifferentnationalmanufacturerhavesometimesencountered troubleinenteringnewmarkets.Inshortthechannelsystemevolvesasafunctionoflocalopportunitiesand conditionsemergingthreatsand
20、opportunitiescompanyresourcesandcapabilities andotherfactors.ConsidersomeofthechallengesDellhasencounteredinrecentyears.HybridChannelsTodayssuccessfulcompaniesarealsomultiplyingthenumberofquot go-to-market quot orhybridchannelsinanyonemarketarea.IncontrasttoDellHPhasuseditssales forcetoselltolarge a
21、ccounts outbound telemarketing to sell to medium-sized accounts direct mail with an inbound number to sell to small accounts retailers to sell to still smaller accounts and the Internet to sell specialty items. Staples markets through its traditional retail channel a direct-response Internet site vi
22、rtual malls and thousands of links on affiliated sites.Companies that manage hybrid channels must make sure these channels work well together and match each target customers preferred ways of doing business. Customers expect channel integration characterized by features such as: the ability to order
23、 a product online and pick it up at a convenient retail location；the ability to return an online-ordered product to a nearby store of the retailer；the right to receive discounts and promotional offers based on total online and off-line purchases. Circuit City estimated in-store pick-ups accounted fo
24、r more than half its online sales in 2006. Heres a specific example of a company that has carefully managed its multiple channels. REI（Recreation Equipment Inc.） What s more frustrating: buying hiking boots that cripple your feet or trying on the perfect pair only to find the store is out of stock i
25、n the size or style you want at Recreational Equipment Inc.largeaccountsoutboundtelemarketingtoselltomedium-sized accountsdirectmailwithaninboundnumbertoselltosmallaccountsretailerstosell tostillsmalleraccountsandtheInternettosellspecialtyitems.Staplesmarkets throughitstraditionalretailchannela dire
26、ct-responseInternetsitevirtualmallsand thousandsoflinksonaffiliatedsites.Companies that manage hybrid channels must make sure these channels work well together and match each target customers preferred ways of doing business. Customers expect channel integration characterized by features such as: th
27、e ability to order a product online and pick it up at a convenient retail location；the ability to return an online-ordered product to a nearby store of the retailer；the right to receive discounts and promotional offers based on total online and off-line purchases. Circuit City estimated in-store pic
28、k-ups accounted for more than half its online sales in 2006. Heres a specific example of a company that has carefully managed its multiple channels. REI（Recreation Equipment Inc.） Whats more frustrating: buying hiking boots that cripple your feet or trying on the perfect pair only to find the store
29、is out of stock in the size or style you want at Recreational Equipment Inc.UnderstandingCustomerNeedsConsumersmaychoosethechannelstheypreferbasedonanumberoffactors:thepriceproductassortmentandconvenienceofachanneloptionaswellastheir ownparticularhoppinggoalseconomicsocialorexperiential.Aswithproduc
30、ts segmentationexistsandmarketersemployingdifferenttypesofchannelsmustbe awarethatdifferentconsumershavedifferentneedsduringthepurchaseprocess.ResearchersNunesandCespedesarguethatinmanymarketsbuyersfallinto oneoff ourcategories.Habitualshopperspurchasefromthesameplacesinthesamemannerovertime.High-va
31、luedealseekersknowtheirneedsandquot channelsurf quotagreatdeal beforebuyingatthelowestpossibleprice.Variety-lovingshoppersgatherinformationinmanychannelstakeadvantage ofhightouchservicesandthenbuyintheirfavoritechannelregardlessofprice.High-involvementshoppersgatherinformationinallchannelsmaketheir
32、purchaseinalow- costchannelbuttakeadvantageof customersupportfroma high-touchchannel.Onestudyof40groceryandclothingretailersinFranceGermanyandthe UnitedKingdomfoundthatretailersinthosecountriesservedthreetypesofshoppers:1.Service/qualitycustomerswhocaredmostaboutthevarietyandperformanceof productsin
33、storesaswellastheserviceprovided.2.Price/valuecustomerswhowere mostconcernedaboutspendingtheirmoneywisely.3.Affinitycustomerswho primarilysoughtstoresthatsuitedpeoplelikethemselvesorthemembersof groupstheyaspiredtojoin.AsFigure15.1showscustomerprofilesforthesetypesof retailersdifferedacrossthethreem
34、arkets:InFranceshoppersplacedmore importanceonservice andqualityintheUnitedKingdomaffinityandinGermany priceandvalue.Eventhesameconsumerthoughmaychoosetousedifferentchannelsfor differentfunctionsinmakingapurchase.Forinstancesomeonemaychooseto browsethroughacatalogbeforevisitingastoreortakeatest-driv
35、eatadealerbefore orderingacaronline.Consumersmayalsoseekdifferenttypesofchannelsdepending ontheparticulartypesofgoodsinvolved.Someconsumersarewillingtoquot tradeupquottoretailersofferinghigher-endgoodssuchasTAGHeuerwatchesorCalla waygolf clubsthesesameconsumersarealsowillingtoquot tradedown quottodi
36、scountretailersto buyprivate-labelpapertowelsdetergentorvitamins.ValueNetworksAsupplychainviewofafirmseesmarketsasdestinationpointsandamountsto alinearviewoftheflow.Thecompanyshouldfirstthinkofthetargetmarket howeverandthendesignthesupplychainbackwardfromthatpoint.Thisviewhas beencalleddemandchainpl
37、anning.North westernsDonSchultzsays:quot Ademand chainmanagementapproachdoesntjustpushthingsthroughthesystem.It emphasizeswhatsolutionsconsumersarelookingfornotwhatproductswearetryingtosellthem.QuotSchultzhassuggestedthatthetraditionalmarketingquot fourPs quot be replacedbyanewacronymSIVAwhichstands
38、forsolutionsinformationvalueand access.Anevenbroaderviewseesacompanyatthecenterofavaluenetwork-asystem ofpartnershipsandalliancesthatafirmcreatestosourceaugmentanddeliverits offerings.Avaluenetworkincludesafirmssuppliersanditssupplierssuppliersan dietsimmediatecustomersandtheirendcustomers.Thevaluen
39、etworkincludesvalued relationswithotherssuchasuniversityresearchersandgovernmentapproval agencies.Demandchainplanningyieldsseveralinsights.First,thecompanycanestimatewhethermoremoneyismadeupstreamordownstream,incaseitmightwanttointegratebackward.orforward.Second,thecompanyismoreawareofdisturbancesan
40、ywhereinthesupplychainthatmightcausecosts,prices,orsuppliestochangesuddenly.Third,companiescangoonlinewiththeirbusinesspartnerstocarryonfasterandmoreaccuratecommunications,transactions,andpaymentstoreducecosts,speedupinformation,andincreaseaccuracy.WiththeadventoftheInternet,companiesareformingmoren
41、umerousandcomplexrelationshipswithotherfirms.Managingthisvaluenetworkhasrequiredcompaniestomakeincreasinginvestmentsininformationtechnologyandsoftware.TheyhaveinvitedsuchsoftwarefirmsasSAPandOracletodesigncomprehensiveenterpriseresourceplanningsystemstomanagecashflow,manufacturing,humanresources,pur
42、chasing,andothermajorfunctionswithinaunifiedframework.Theyhopetobreakupdepartmentsilosandcarryoutcorebusinessprocessesmoreseamlessly.Marketers,fortheirpart,havetraditionallyfocusedonthesideofthevaluenetworkthatlookstowardthecustomer.Inthefuture,theywillincreasinglyparticipateinandinfluencetheircompa
43、niesupstreamactivitiesandbecomenetworkmanagers,notonlyproductandcustomermanagers.营销渠道与价值网络管理公司的混合渠道必须确保这些渠道一起工作和相互匹配的目标客户首选的做生意的方式。客户希望渠道整合高 通过诸如在线订购产品的能力和在一个方便的零售地点捡东西的能力；能够将网上订购的产品转化为零售商的附近商店 接受折扣和促销优惠的基础上总在线和离线购买。电路城估计店内接售占其在线销售额的一半以上2006。这是一个特定的 一个精心管理多渠道的公司的IC例子。REI（游乐设备公司）更令人沮丧：买登山靴，削弱你的脚或试图在完
44、美的排 R只找到商店的大小或风格，你想在娱乐设备公司的股票。大多数生产者并不直接销售产品到最终用户，他们代表的是一套执行多种功能的中介机构。这些中介机构构成了一个营销渠道，也称为贸易渠道或分销渠道，正式的营销渠道是一组相互依存的组织，参与的过程中，使产品或服务可供使用或消费。他们是通过产品或服务来确定生产后最终使用用户。一些中介机构，如批发商和零售商购买所有权和转售商品，他们被称为商人。其他经纪商代理销售代表寻找客户，并可能代表生产商谈判，但不采取标题的货物，他们被称为代理。还有一些运输公司、广告公司、独立仓库银行协助分发过程，他们被叫做促进者但没有把货物所有权或洽谈购买权或销售权给他们。渠道
45、的重要性营销渠道系统是一个企业特定的营销渠道并且关于它的决策是管理层面临的最关键的问题之一。在美国的渠道成员集体获得的利润占最终销售价格30至50。相反，广告通常占了不到最终价格的5成或 7成。营销渠道代表一个巨大的机会成本。营销渠道的主要作用是将潜在的买家变成有利可图的客户。营销渠道不仅要服务市场还必须使用市场。渠道选择影响其他所有的营销决策。公司的定价取决于是否采用大卖场或高品质的精品店。企业的销售力和广告决策取决于经销商需要多少培训和激励。此外，渠道决定还包括对除了对那些芬兰人相对长期的承诺之外的一套政策和程序。当一个汽车制造商签署支持独立的经销商去销售他们汽车的时候，以后汽车制造商就不
46、能用公司拥有的网点去取代他们。与此同时，营销渠道的选择依靠自己公司的市场战略以及对目标的细分和定位。使整体营销获得在这些所有市场决策中的不同领域的集体价值最大化。在中介企业的管理中必须决定它投入多少努力在推拉营销中。推式策略是使用制造商的销售力量促进贸易资金或使用其他手段诱导中介进行对最终用户的宣传和产品销售。推式策略适合用于选择低忠诚度的品牌产品，在这个品牌店里的项目，产品推动效益都是被理解。在拉式策略的制造商中使用通信广告宣传等形式，在拉动策略中，制造商使用广告促销和其他形式的沟通来说服消费者向中介机构要求产品，从而促使中介机构订购产品。拉的策略是适合在消费者进入店前就能够感知品牌差异和品牌选择的，拉式策略合适这种品牌有高忠诚度和高涉入度的。多年来，药物公司只针对医生和医院的广告，但在1997 FDA发布的电视广告指南，开辟