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1、The Emergence and Development of Contracting Fault LiabilityAbstract: The Contracting Fault Liability as a civil compensation liability occurs when one party violates the precontractual obligations subject to bona fide principle and then the other party is to be entitled to the compensation for the
2、damages to the reliance on its interest suffered thereby. The system of the contracting fault liability was put forward by a German jurist and was famed an important find of jurisprudence. Reviewing the history of liability for negligence in contracting, we can finds that case and theory play a very
3、 important role in its development.Introduction: In traditional contract law, contract rights and obligations between the parties is only kept in the establishment and performance of contracts completed period. If the contractual relationship did not exist or not set up, it implies no responsibility
4、. That is,” no contracts, no responsibility. So in the contract, if one sides contract is not set up, which implies the fact that there have to protect the interested parties who loss something. With this situation, the fault liability was come out. This article focuses on it.The Emergence and devel
5、opment of contracting fault liability:It is generally agreed that the concept of fault liability have already came out in Rome law. There is a famous saying: contract is no longer the subject of the payment is void. At this point, if the buyer is in good faith and without negligence, in order to pro
6、tect the security of transactions, in exceptional circumstances the buyer the right to appeal based on buyers to good faith litigation, the request to the seller for compensation for losses suffered due to an invalid contract. However, before the formation of the ancient Roman law, there is no contr
7、actual obligation and Culpa complete system. The complete theoretical and institutional systematization of things was established in the modern times. It is proposed by the German jurist Garling. In the year of 1861, Jelling published in Volume IV of Contracting on the fault- Contract null and void
8、and damages before the establishment of the harmed in his “Garling doctrine Annual Report”. In the article, he pointed out that Germany took too much emphasis on the will of the general common law and the subjective will of the importance of party desired, but not enough to meet the business needs.
9、For example, offer or commitment is failed to convey, the person or the subject will affect the effectiveness of the contract, if the contract due to the fault of one of the parties and not established, the party at fault should the other party because of reliance on the establishment of contract lo
10、sses liability? Garling replied: the people who engaged in contracts were concluded, from a contractual obligation to trade outside the scope of the negative into a positive obligation on the lease area, which thus assume the primary obligation lies in contracting to be fulfilling the necessary atte
11、ntion. Protected by law, not just an existing contractual relationship, the contractual relationship is taking place should be included; otherwise the lease deal will be out, and out of protection. The parties created a contractual obligation, if such an effect because of legal obstacles to be exclu
12、ded when the obligation will be to produce damages. There will be a so-called contract is invalid persons, refers only to fulfill effect does not occur, non - that he did not have any effect. In a brief, the parties make the contracts meaningless because of their own reasons do not contract who beli
13、eved its contractual right for the effective establishment of the relative should pay for the damage. 1 This is the Garling s Contracting negligence theory, it is known as the Law on the findings. Since the Jelling theory put forward the theory of contracting negligence, it is seriously concerned by
14、 the world. And then it carried out more extensive and in-depth and systematic research and it also increasingly by some countries, legislation or judicial practice to accept them. In the “German Civil Code times, the scholars begin to discuss it on the question of fault on the parties. Most of the
15、drafters believes that contracting negligence theory of liability is not easy to accept and prescribed by a general principle, only in exceptional circumstances should be recognized. So, in 1900 the German Civil Code, the drafters of the treaty on the fault is not fully accepted the theory, only in
16、the wrong to withdraw (122), the right agent (179), from the outset the objective can not (307), etc. is limited adopted within the framework of this view, but the contracting negligence theory in the German judicial practice and doctrine have been developed rapidly and gradually formed a fine, larg
17、e, complex and wide scope of application, the establishment of a generalized principle.In Japan, the jurisprudence has also acknowledged the responsibility of contracting negligence theory. In Japans Case to find the bases of the fault liability from the trust and the city real credit principle, so
18、the scope of this responsibility extended to the following areas: (1) Unable to perform the contract from the beginning so that the contract does not hold or invalid; (2) The contract shall only remain in the preparation stage of negotiation; (3) Contract effective establishment of the situation. Co
19、ntracting fault liability is an effective establishment of the situation of enough to matter if the targets were flawed and contractor who breach of contract.In Greece and Italy, contracting fault liability was concerned as a general principle. According to Greek Civil Code Article 197, it stipulate
20、s that: When consultations on the occasion of the conclusion of contracts, the parties should have obligation to follow the trading practices and good faith. The Italian Civil Code section 1337 provides a pre-negotiations and contractual responsibility, both in the process of negotiation and conclus
21、ion of contracts, the parties should be based on the principles of good faith.In France, contracting fault liability has not been incorporated into the Civil Code. When a similar situation occurs, it will be handled in accordance with the tort law. But in recent years, the judicial practice shows th
22、at the contract law principles of contract is invalid or does not hold the party at fault when the responsibility to prosecute cases occur from time to time, such as the preparation protocol protection. In the English and American laws, there is no contracting fault liability concept in history. But
23、 after Mansfield incorporated duty of good faith into their laws with widespread support since 1933, the common law admits contracting fault liability. In 1933, Fuller, scholar in the US, comes out with amends when damages trust in the contract laws published in the “Yale Law Review”. The paper was
24、discussed in detail with the expected benefits, trust interests and the performance benefits. The United States Uniform Commercial Code, also confirmed the duty of good faith that is loyal to the fact. In there laws, the trust interests of the parties to the contract is a result of the trust each ot
25、hers promise to pay the price or charges. Can not go back on the promise is their laws to protect the interests of a principle of trust. Their laws requires the court in establishing trust in the interests of the compensation promised to people without regard to how the subjective meaning. Only cons
26、ider the defendant as a promise, whether we can make a reasonable person to become trusted.CONCLUSION:We may draw a conclusion that contracting fault liability has become a integrated system according to the regulations made in many countries for it based on Garlings original theory. Compared with t
27、he original theory of Garling , there are a few developments. The first is the expansion of the scope. Contracting fault liability can not only be used for the beginning of contracting but also be applicable to the contract are recognized as invalid and be revoked when in breach of its offer to a va
28、lid offer and should bear responsibility for the case of contracting. Second, Garlings theory thinks the responsibility for contracting negligence claims based on contractual obligations and fails to point out the strict differences between contractual liability and contracting liability. But the mo
29、dern jurisprudence generally consider contracting responsibility is an independent responsibility and has strict differences with contractual and tortious responsibility. Third, most countries have accepted the responsibility of contracting fault liability theory, which the law or case law has clear
30、ly defined and reflected.Fourth, contracting fault liabilitys fault not only includes “not pay attention fault”, but also contains “on purpose”. 合同中缔约过失责任的产生和发展【摘要】缔约过失责任是在订立合同过程中缔约一方当事人因违反依诚实信用原则所应承担的先合同义务而造成另一方当事人信赖利益损失时所应承担的民事赔偿责任。缔约过失责任制度是由德国法学家耶林提出并被誉为法学上的重要发现,对各国的立法和判例法都产生了深远的影响。回顾缔约过失责任理论发展的历
31、史、判例、学说在缔约过失责任理论的发展中扮演了极为重要的角色。介绍在传统的合同法中，合同当事人之间权利义务关系仅仅存于合同的成立和履行完毕这一段时间。如果合同关系尚不存在或未成立，就无所谓责任可言。即有契约才有责任，无契约便无责任，因此，在合同因当事人一方缔约时的过失不成立或无效时，如何保护损失的另一方当事人的利益，就成为违约责任不能不解决的问题，缔约过失责任就是为了解决这一问题而产生的。本文正是对缔约过失责任的产生与发展进行的阐述。缔约过失责任的的产生与发展通说认为，在罗马法上，缔约过失责任的观念已经出现。罗马法上有一名言：契约已不能之给付为标的者无效。此时若买受人为善意且无过失，为保护交易
32、安全，在特殊情况下买受人的基于买主诉权，以诚意诉讼，向卖主请求赔偿因契约无效所受的损失。但是总体来讲古罗马法并没有形成前契约义务和缔约过失责任的完整的制度。缔约过失责任完整的理论和制度上系统化是近代以来的事情，它由德国法学家耶林提出。耶林1861年在其主编的耶林学说年报第四卷上发表了缔约上过失-契约无效与未成立时之损害赔偿一文。他在该文中指出，德国普遍通法过分注重意志说，强调当事人主观意志的合意，因此不足以适应商业活动的需要。例如，要约或承诺的传达失实，相对人或标的物的错误都会影响契约的效力，倘若契约因当事人一方的过失而不成立时，有过失的一方是否应就他方因信赖契约的成立而遭受的损失负赔偿责任？
33、耶林的回答是：从事契约缔结的人，是从契约交易外的消极义务范畴，进入契约上的积极义务范畴，其因此而承担的首要义务，系于缔约时须善尽必要的注意。法律所保护的，并非仅是一个业已存在的契约关系，正在发生的契约关系亦应包括在内，否则，契约交易将暴露于外，不受保护，缔约一方当事人不免成为他方疏忽或不注意的牺牲品。契约的缔约产生了一种履行义务，若此种效力因法律上的障碍而被排除时，则会产生一种损害赔偿义务。因此，所谓契约无效者，仅指不发生履行效力，非谓不发生任何效力。简言之，当事人因自己过失致使契约不成立者，对信其契约为有效成立的相对人，应赔偿基于此项信赖而产生的损害。1这就是耶林关于缔约过失责任的理论，它被
34、称为法学上的发现。自耶林提出缔约过失理论的学说后，得到了世界各国民法理论界的关注，随后便进行了较广泛、深入而系统的研究，而且也逐渐被一些国家的立法或审判实践予以采纳。在德国民法典制定之际，学者们就对缔约过失问题展开了讨论。多数起草者认为，缔约过失责任理论不易全盘接受而作为一般原则加以规定，只能在特殊情况下予以承认。所以1900年的德国民法典的起草者并未完全接受缔约上过失的理论，仅在错误的撤销(122条)、无权代理(179条)、自始客观不能(307条)等有限范围内采纳了这一观点，但是缔约过失理论在德国司法实务和学说上得到了迅速发展，并逐渐形成了精细、庞大、复杂、适用范围广泛的制度，建立了一般化的
35、原则。在日本民法中，判例上也承认了缔约过失责任理论。日本判例学说从接触磋商的当事人之间的信赖和城实信用原则出发，寻找缔约过失责任的根据，于是把这种责任的适用范围扩大到了如下领域：(1)自始不能履行合同使合同不成立或无效；(2)合同只停留在准备磋商阶段；(3)合同有效成立的情况。缔约过失责任适用于合同有效成立的情况，主要是指标的物有瑕疵和缔约人违反保证两种情况。希腊、意大利民法将缔约过失责任作为一般原则加以规定。希腊民法典第197条规定：从事缔结契约磋商行为之际，当事人应负有遵循依诚实信用及交易惯例所要求的行为义务。第198条规定：于为缔结契约磋商行为之际，因过失致相对人遭受损害时，应负损害赔偿
36、责任，纵契约未成立亦然。关于此项请求权的时效，准用基于侵权行为请求权时效的规定。意大利民法典第1337条规定了谈判和契约前的责任，既在谈判和缔结契约过程中，双方当事人应根据诚信原则进行之；第1338条规定：知道或应知道契约无效原因存在的一方没有将其通知另一方，则该方要为此就对方在契约有效期内基于信赖、没有过错而遭受的损失承担赔偿责任。法国一直未将缔约过失责任纳入民法典中，遇到类似情况一般会按照侵权行为法的规定处理。但近年来的司法实践表明，以合同法原则对契约无效或不成立时有过错的一方当事人的责任进行追究的案例时有出现，如对预备协议的保护等。在英美法中，虽然没有缔约过失的概念，但自从1933年曼斯
37、菲德将诚信义务纳入英美法中，并获得了广泛的赞同之后，普通法也承认违反诚信义务构成过失。1933年美国学者富勒等在耶鲁法律评论上发表了合同法中信赖利益的损害赔偿一文，详细讨论了期待利益、信赖利益和履行利益问题，指出了信赖利益的赔偿主要是为了弥补合同法规则的不足，强化禁止反言原则，弥补受害人的损失而创设。美国统一商法典也确认了诚信义务，认为诚信是指事实上的忠实，对于商人来说是指遵循正当交易的合理的商业标准。 英美法中的信赖利益是指合同当事人因信赖对方的允诺而支付的代价或费用。允诺不得反悔是英美法中保护信赖利益的一项原则，类似于大陆法上的缔约过失制度。英美法要求法院在确立信赖利益的赔偿时无须考虑允诺
38、人主观意思如何，只须考虑被告所为的允诺，是否可以使一个合理的人产生信赖。 此外，在英美法中，合同的内容包括默示条款。违反默示义务所致的损害，也应负赔偿责任。这都类似于大陆法中缔约过失责任适用的一些情况。总结综观自耶林缔约过失责任提出以来各国对这一制度的规定可以看出缔约过失责任制度已形成一个体系，较之耶林当初的理论主要有以下几点发展：一是适用范围的扩大。缔约过失不仅仅适用于缔约阶段也可以适用于合同被确认为无效和被撤销的情况而且在要约人违反其发出的有效要约而应承担缔约责任的情况下也适用缔约过失责任；二是耶林认为缔约过失责任的请求权基础仍在于契约责任，未能指出契约责任与缔约责任的严格区别，现代法学普
39、遍认为缔约责任是一种独立的责任，与契约责任和侵权责任有严格的区别。三是世界上大多数国家都接受了缔约过失责任理论，在制定法或判例法中有明确的规定和体现。四是缔约过失责任的过失不但包括不注意等过失，还包括故意。五分钟搞定5000字毕业论文外文翻译，你想要的工具都在这里!在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手。具体操作过程如下： 1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅
40、读文献； 2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了； 3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。 另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。四大工具： 1、Google翻译： google，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还
41、算是比较详实的。我利用它是这样的。一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。回到我自己说的翻译上来。下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。 在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最
42、精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。 2、CNKI翻译： CNKI翻译助手，这个网站不需要介绍太多，可能有些人也知道的。主要说说它的有点，你进去看看就能发现：搜索的肯定是专业词汇，而且它翻译结果下面有文章与之对应（因为它是CNKI检索提供的，它的翻译是从文献里抽出来的），很实用的一个网站。估计别的写文章的人不是傻子吧，它们的东西我们可以直接拿来用，当然省事了。网址告诉大家，有兴趣的进去看看，你们就会发现其乐无穷！还是很值得用的。 3、网路版金山词霸（不到1M）： 4、有道在线翻译：翻译时的速度：这里我谈的是电子版和打印版的翻译速度，按个人翻译速度看，打印版的快些，因为看电子版本一是费眼睛，
43、二是如果我们用电脑，可能还经常时不时玩点游戏，或者整点别的，导致最终SPPEED变慢，再之电脑上一些词典（金山词霸等）在专业翻译方面也不是特别好，所以翻译效果不佳。在此本人建议大家购买清华大学编写的好像是国防工业出版社的那本英汉科学技术词典，基本上挺好用。再加上网站如：google CNKI翻译助手，这样我们的翻译速度会提高不少。具体翻译时的一些技巧（主要是写论文和看论文方面） 大家大概都应预先清楚明白自己专业方向的国内牛人，在这里我强烈建议大家仔细看完这些头上长角的人物的中英文文章，这对你在专业方向的英文和中文互译水平提高有很大帮助。 我们大家最蹩脚的实质上是写英文论文，而非看英文论文，但话
44、说回来我们最终提高还是要从下大工夫看英文论文开始。提到会看，我想它是有窍门的，个人总结如下： 1、把不同方面的论文分夹存放，在看论文时，对论文必须做到看完后完全明白（你重视的论文）；懂得其某部分讲了什么（你需要参考的部分论文），在看明白这些论文的情况下，我们大家还得紧接着做的工作就是把论文中你觉得非常巧妙的表达写下来，或者是你论文或许能用到的表达摘记成本。这个本将是你以后的财富。你写论文时再也不会为了一些表达不符合西方表达模式而烦恼。你的论文也降低了被SCI或大牛刊物退稿的几率。不信，你可以试一试 2、把摘记的内容自己编写成检索，这个过程是我们对文章再回顾，而且是对你摘抄的经典妙笔进行梳理的重要阶段。你有了这个过程。写英文论文时，将会有一种信手拈来的感觉。许多文笔我们不需要自己再翻译了。当然前提是你梳理的非常细，而且中英文对照写的比较详细。 3、最后一点就是我们往大成修炼的阶段了，万事不是说成的，它是做出来的。写英文论文也就像我们小学时开始学写作文一样，你不练笔是肯定写不出好作品来的。所以在此我鼓励大家有时尝试着把自己的论文强迫自己写成英文的，一遍不行，可以再修改。最起码到最后你会很满意。呵呵，我想我是这么觉得的。