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1、英文文献翻译：Basic surveying and mappingIntroductionThe concept and classification of the first section surveying and mapping(Surveying and Mapping; SM)A concept, surveying and mapping (Surveying and Mapping; SM)Surveying and mapping is the acquisition of geographic information (the determination, collect
2、ion of Italy), a scientific processing, description and application. Its contents include: Study on determination, describing the shape of the earth, size, gravity, surface morphology and their various changes, determine the natural and artificial objects, artificial facilities spatial location and
3、attributes, made of various map (including topographic map) and the establishment of information system. Modern surveying and mapping techniques have been applied to some other planets and the moon.The concept of geographical information (Geographical information; GI): reflect the characteristics of
4、 geographical system and its factors, various information dynamic, rhythm, rhythm, cycle and distribution. The general is the image of geographic information, digital geographic information and file information. A variety of geographic information of modern geography through observation, statistics,
5、 document retrieval, aerial survey, ground measurements, the aircraft measurement for information on the surface of the earth and space condition.The concept of geographic information system (Geographical Information System; GIS): supported by computer hardware, all kinds of geographic information a
6、ccording to the spatial distribution, in a certain format input, storage, retrieval, update, display, graphics and comprehensive analysis of the technology system. It contains data, symbol and image etc.The concept of Measurement Science (Surveying): surveying is the study of how to determine the lo
7、cation of the ground plane points and elevation, the topography of the earths surface and other information of Surveying and mapping (with map and topographic map), and study the earths size and shape of a science.Determination of the concept refers to the use of measuring instruments and methods, t
8、hrough the measurement and calculation, obtain the measured data of the ground point, or to the topography of the earths surface according to a certain proportion shrinking as topography, for scientific research, the national economic construction and planning design.Survey and design concept is the
9、 planning drawing design good building, structure location (position and Gao Cheng) with the measurement instrument and the measurement method on ground calibration as the basis for construction. Two, surveying and mapping science research objectObject mapping studies, usually is the surface of the
10、earth (including land and sea) and fixtures. With the continuous development of science and technology, the research object will be extended to the distant space and other planets.Three, the task of Surveying and mappingTypically, surveying and mapping tasks are divided into three aspects as follows
11、:1, the surface of the earth or the earths surface shape and size of the local region mapping topographic maps - from the field to the drawings (mapping or determination)2, the drawing design good engineering building, the instrument and method calibration to the field - from drawings to the field (
12、setting or setting).3, under construction and completion of the building deformation monitoring, regular - deformation observation.Such as Frances Barcelona outburst of an arch dam, the dam is an example of the lack of necessary observation and caused great disaster. The dam was built in 1954, destr
13、oyed in 1959 December. The dam burst, store flood rushing downstream water level rise, instant. Depth of 7 - 15 meters, width of a kilometer to 70 km / h speed down speed, lasted 45 minutes, downstream 10 km Ferre eggplant, city in ruins before the dam, 8 kilometers a barracks 500 soldiers died. To
14、this end, the French government set up a commission check. According to the survey said: because the dam slope local rock weak, the abutment inhomogeneous deformation and landslide caused by the dam burst. Set no observation instruments during the dam operation, building on the lack of regular inspe
15、ction and observation of deformation before failure, failed to fully understand the dam reinforcement remedial measures, did not make the corresponding etc, is one of the most important causes of dam failure.The investigation that the dam failure lesson of the main is dam observation shall be equipp
16、ed with a sufficient number of personnel and equipment, systematic observation of dam.So far, in water conservancy technology theory, is also very difficult to solve the problems in water conservancy project all, such as the stress state and stability calculation, the flow state, hydrological and en
17、gineering geological conditions. However, the modern practice of observation has to a great extent can make up for its shortcomings. For example, a dam dynamic, basically be by the dam external deformation observation, internal (stress, strain and so on) observation and seepage observation three tim
18、ely, fully tested, and found problems in a timely manner. The deformation observation of dam in the world of maintenance, and some projects together, are put in the first place.In fact, the vast majority of the destruction of the dam, dont happen overnight, but there is a process from quantitative c
19、hange to qualitative change. So, even if the dam has some defects, inappropriate factors or design theory, geological survey and construction quality, if through carefully observation, inspection, can be timely discovered and remedy.Frances Barcelona arch dam after the crash, the deformation of dam
20、observation work more attention, since the international conference to dam deformation observation of dam as an important content included in the agenda, and published a large number of observation data. The meeting in many countries (Committee) or government, to monitor reservoir or dam safety and
21、much stricter regulations.Four, surveying and mapping science classificationSurveying and mapping science as a subject, can be divided into several independent discipline:1, geodesy (geodesy): is the space in a certain time reference system, measurement and description of the earth and other planeta
22、ry bodies of a discipline. Another definition is studied in larger regional or global 3D geodetic control network, gravity network, determination of the earths shape, size and the earths gravity field and its variation theory, technology and method of the subject. The main contents are: triangulatio
23、n, traverse survey, leveling, astronomical measurement, gravity measurement, satellite geodesy, very long baseline interferometry, inertial measurement, ellipsoidal geodesy, the earth shape theory and surveying adjustment etc.geodesy Knowledge Window geodesy is one of the oldest Applied Earth Scienc
24、e, the classical definition is: measurement and description of the surface of the earth science. With the development of space geodesy theory and techniques (GPS, VLBI, SLR etc.), geodesy, break through the traditional limitations of time and space, enter the new stage of the development of modern g
25、eodesy, which is defined as: accurate determination of the three-dimensional position, shape, size, the surface of the earth and its external gravity field, and monitoring and interpretation over time they change science. So geodesy from engineering application to fundamental earth science change, b
26、ecome one of the frontier subjects to promote the development of earth sciences.VR: Virtual Reality ，虚拟现实。VR: Virtual Reality, virtual reality.GPS：Global Positioning System, 全球定位系统。GPS:Global Positioning System, global positioning system.GIS：Geographical Information System, 地理信息系统。GIS:Geographical I
27、nformation System, geographic information system.RS：Remote Sensing, 遥感（本意是“遥远的感觉”）Remote sensing (RS:Remote Sensing, is intended to feel distant)VLBI: Very Long Baseline Interferometry,甚长基线干涉测量。VLBI: Very Long Baseline Interferometry, very long baseline interferometry.SLR：Satellite Laser Ranging,卫星激
28、光测距。SLR:Satellite Laser Ranging, satellite laser ranging.The main task of the modern geodetic surveying are: 1. Establish and maintain the time-varying 3D high precision geodetic coordinate system; changes in the fine structure of precise determination and Study on the shape, size and the earth grav
29、ity field and with time; the monitoring and interpretation, surface crust (including marine) various geodynamic phenomena.From the above definition, the main task of the modern geodetic surveying from surface geodetic classic development of space geodesy modern science, modern geodesy and modern geo
30、desy. Especially the development of space geodesy, will lead the development of the subject.And the status of modern geodesy: fast, accurate land survey, planning to provide a variety of scale topographic map, provide accurate geodetic data for the exploitation of marine resources of land. in the gr
31、ound, space, marine running on all the traffic tools to provide accurate, real-time navigation and positioning. Will play an important role in safeguarding for space science development, national defense construction. In order to earthquake, flood, landslide, debris flow, El Nino and other natural d
32、isasters, development forecast, forecast. Play an active role in disaster prevention, disaster reduction, disaster relief. The accurate determination of the motion of the plates, the pole shift, the earths rotation rate, and gives the geodynamic interpretation, make a contribution to the study of ea
33、rth science. A large amount of information and Digital Earth are related to geographic information, these related with geographical information, must be based on the same reference frame, theory and method for setting up the frame of reference can only adopt the modern geodesy. Therefore. The modern
34、 geodesy is the support of the subject construction of Digital Earth spatial data framework.Thus, the modern geodesy in peoples daily life, economic construction, National Science and technology development, national security and other aspects will play a positive role, will be the era of knowledge
35、and information era, the comprehensive national strength of the new growth point, the armys role in the play in the rich countries will be more and more. - - geodesy Knowledge Window. Bulletin of Surveying and mapping in 2001 eighth page twenty-first.2, photogrammetry and remote sensing (photogramme
36、try and remote sensing): geometric and physical information on the electromagnetic wave sensor acquisition target, shape, size, spatial location to determine the target, interpretation of its properties and relations, and a discipline graphics, image and digital form theory and technology.The subjec
37、t was mainly used for topographic mapping. With the development of Surveying and mapping technology and remote sensing technology, photography and research objects become more and more diverse, the theory of remote sensing camera today in many scientific fields.3, engineering surveying (Engineering
38、Surveying): Research on the construction and development of natural resources in the survey and design, construction, completion and operation management of various stages of control surveying, topographic surveying, construction lofting, deformation monitoring and establish corresponding informatio
39、n system theory and technology discipline.The main contents are: engineering control network establishment, topographic mapping, construction layout, equipment installation, completion of measurement, measurement of deformation observation and repair maintenance measurement theory, technology and me
40、thod.The main task of engineering surveying is:Firstly, in the planning and design phases need to be designed: Surveying and mapping project area topographic map, for planning design.Second, in the construction process: need to drawing design good building design according to the calibration data to
41、 the field (this is called survey, also called lofting), and detection of construction quality in the construction process, to ensure the accuracy of Engineering construction.Third, the completion of works in: the need for completion acceptance measurement. Completion of measurement results are main
42、ly as follows: the completion general layout, classification map, profile and detail coordinates, elevation list. They are the engineering alteration, expansion and maintenance of necessary information.during the project operation management: for large engineering and precision engineering need to r
43、egularly deformation monitoring, deformation law in order to master the engineering building, to ensure the engineering safety operation; in addition, also need to repair maintenance and measurement.Engineering survey according to the object construction is divided into: architecture, water conserva
44、ncy, railway, highway, bridge, tunnel, mine, geology, city, national defence engineering survey.4, Cartography (Cartography): also known as cartography or cartography, it is the study of map information transmission, spatial cognition, projection principle, generalization and map design, compile, co
45、py and the establishment of map database theory and technology subject. Generally includes the preparation of maps, map projection (mathematical cartography), map decoration map making and printing branch.5, marine surveying and mapping (marine surveying and charting): Study on marine positioning, d
46、etermination of the marine geoid and mean sea level, sea and sea surface topography, gravity, magnetic, the marine environment and other natural and social information of geographical distribution, and the preparation of a variety of chart theory and technology subject. The main research within the
47、scope of control survey, topographic shoreline, bathymetry measurements various measurement theory, technology and method.6, cadastral surveying and mapping (cadastral surveying and mapping): investigation and determination of cadastral elements, preparation, establishment and management of cadastra
48、l map cadastral information system technology.7, instrument of Surveying and mapping (instrument of Surveying and mapping): the development of data acquisition, processing, and output equipment and device manufacturing as the work of Surveying and mapping design discipline.测绘学基础绪论 第一节 测绘学的概念与分类一、测绘学
49、的概念(Surveying and Mapping; SM)测绘学是研究地理信息的获取（测定、采集之意）、处理、描述和应用的一门科学。其内容包括:研究测定、描述地球的形状、大小、重力场、地表形态以及它们的各种变化，确定自然和人工物体、人工设施的空间位置及属性，制成各种地图（含地形图）和建立有关信息系统。现代测绘学的技术已部分应用于其它行星和月球上。地理信息的概念(Geographical information; GI)：反映地理系统及其因素的特征、动态、节奏、韵律、周期及分布状况的各种信息。一般有图象地理信息、数字地理信息和文件信息等。现代地理学通过观察、统计、文件检索、航空测量、地面测量、宇宙航行器测量等手段来获取有关地球表面及空间状况的各种地理信息。地理信息系统的概念（Geographical Information System; GIS）：在计算机软硬件支持下，把各种地理信息按照空间分布，以一定的格式输入、存储、检索、