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1、Unit 1 Language and Language LearningAims of the unitIn this unit we will discuss some general matters about language learning and teaching. We are going to discuss five questions on particular:1. How do we learn language?2. What are the common views on language?3. What are the common views on langu
2、age learning?4. What are the qualities of a good language teacher?5. How can one become a good language teacher?1.1 How do we learn languages?Mach of human behavior is influenced by their experiences. The way language teachers teach in the classroom is to some extent influenced by the way they learn
3、ed languages. This is especially true in foreign language teaching. Before we discuss language learning theories, let us first reflect on our own language learning experience.Task 1Below is a list of interview questions on how people learn a foreign language. In the first column, write down your own
4、 responses. Then interview three other students in your class and enter their responses in the other columns. Discuss your findings in group of 4 and draw some conclusion.YouST1ST2ST31. How many foreign languages can you speak so far?2. When did you start learning the foreign language(s)?3. How do y
5、ou feel about learning a foreign language?4. What difficulties have you experienced in learning?5. Which skill do you find more difficult to learn?6. Have you focused on knowledge or skills? Why?7. Why do you learn the foreign language(s)?8. Do you consider yourself a successful learner? Why?9. What
6、 are your most common learning activities?10. Do you like the way you learned the foreign language(s)?From the above task, you may have found that 1) people started learning a foreign language at different ages; 2) people have different experiences in learning a foreign language, some find it easy,
7、some find it difficult; 3) people learn languages for different reasons; 4) people learn languages in different ways; 5) people have different understandings about language learning; 6) people have different capacities in language learning; 7) learning can be affected by the way it is taught; 8) lea
8、rning is affected by the degree of success one is expected to achieve; and more. Thus the challenge confronting language teaching is how teaching methodology can ensure successful learning by all the learners who have more differences than the commonality.1.2 views on languageThe question that all a
9、pproaches to language teaching should answer is, what is language? The answer to this question is the basis for syllabus designs, teaching methodology, teaching and assessment procedures in the classroom. Different views on language generate different teaching methodologies.Task 2Work in group of 4.
10、 Brainstorm possible answer to the question: what is language? When you are ready, join another group and share your ideas.To give a concise definition of language has always been difficult for linguists and philogists. Although there has been an enormous amount of research in language in the past c
11、entury, no authoritative answer has been given to what is language? rather, people have settle down to talk about views of language, seemingly allowing for or accepting different theories for the moment. However, language teachers clearly need to know generally what sort of entity they are dealing w
12、ith and how the particular language they are teaching fits into that entity (Brown, 1994a). for sample definition of language , please refer to Appendix 1.Structural viewThe structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991):
13、the sound system (phonology); the discrete units of meaning produced by sound combinations (morphology), and the system of combining units of meaning for communication (syntax). Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so a
14、s to be able to understand and produce language. When this structural view of language was combined with the stimulus-response principles of behaviorist psychology, the audio-lingual approach to language learning emerged.Functional viewIn the 1960s, British linguists developed a system of categories
15、 based on the communicative needs of the learner (Johnson and Marrow, 1981) and proposed a syllabus based on communicative functions. The functional view not only sees languages as a linguistic system but also a means for doing things. Most of our day-to-day language use involves functional activiti
16、es: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. therefore, learners learn a language in order to be able to do with it. In order to perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Examples of notion
17、s are the concept of present, past and future time, the expressions of certainty and possibility, the roles of agents, instruments with a sentence, and special relationships between people and objects.Interactional viewThe interactional view considers language to be a communicative tool, whose main
18、use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language but as importantly they need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative contexts.These three views present an ever wider view
19、of language. The structural view limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules and vocabulary. The communicative or notional-functional view adds the need to know how to use the rules and vocabulary to do whatever it is one wants to do. The interactional view says that to know how to do
20、what you want to do involves also knowing whether it is appropriate to do, and where, when and how it is appropriate to do it. In order to know this, you have to study the patterns and rules of language above the sentence level to learn how language is used in different speech contexts.The understan
21、ding of the nature of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching method (Richard and Rodgers, 1986), but more importantly, it is closely related to the understanding of language learning. If language is considered to have a finite number of structural items, learning the language proba
22、bly means learning these items. If language is more than just a system of structures, it is more importantly a tool then to learn the language learning. If language is more than just a system of structures, it is more importantly a tool, then to learn the language means to use it, rather than just s
23、tudy what it is and how it is formed. The next section discusses some current theories about language learning.1.3 Views on Language learning and learning in generalA language learning theory underlying an approach or method usually answers two questions; 1) What are the psycholinguistic and cogniti
24、ve processes involved in language learning? 2) What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be activated?Task3Work in groups of 4. Brainstorm the answers to the two questions stated above.When you are ready, join another group and share your ideas.Although the
25、se two questions have never been satisfactorily answered, a vast amount of research has been done from all aspects. The research can be broadly divided into process-oriented theories and condition-oriented theories. Process-oriented theories are concerned with how the mind organizes new information
26、such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization. Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receive, and the atmosphe
27、re. Some researchers attempt to formulate teaching approaches directly from these theories. For example, the Natural Approach, Total Physical Response, and the Silent Way are based on one or more dimensions of processes and conditions. At this level, it is too early to formulate a specific approach,
28、 because some aspects are still too vague, for example, what is done in these processes.Behaviorist theoryThe behaviorist theory of language learning was initiated by behavioural psychologist Skinner, who applied Watson and Raynors theory of conditioning to the way human acquire language (Harmer, 19
29、83). Based on their experiments, Watson and Raynor formulated a stimulus-response theory of psychology. In this theory all complex forms of behaviormotions, habits and suchare seen as composed of simple muscular and glandular elements that can be observed and measured. They claimed that emotional re
30、actions are learned in much the same way as other skills. The key point of the theory of conditioning is that you can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement (Harmer, 1983:30).Based on the th
31、eory of conditioning, Skinner suggested that language is also a form of behavior. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is referred to as behaviorism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in
32、the U.S. One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves endless listen and repeat drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were
33、 immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of the world today.Cognitive theoryThe term cognitivism is often used loosely to describe methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat. It seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomskys reaction to Skinners beha
34、viorist theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics. The key point of Chomskys theory is reflected in his most famous question: if all language is a learned behavior, how can a child produce a sentence that never been said by others before?According to Chomsky, language is not a form
35、of behavior, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with a knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language
36、competence which enables him to produce language. Though Chomskys theory is not directly applied in language teaching, it has had a great impact on the profession. One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. Thi
37、s idea is clearly in opposition to the audio-lingual method.Although people are pretty much still in the dark as to what language is and how language is learned, it is believed that general knowledge about language and language learning will help language teachers do a better job. Constructivist the
38、oryThe constructivist theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already knows. Although constructivist theory was not developed for the understanding of language learning, it is widely applicable to learning in
39、 general. It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rote recall what is learned. John Dewey provided a foundation for constructivism. He believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need t
40、o design environments and interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners. Therefore, teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learners interests and cu
41、riosity for learning (Archambault, 1964).Socio-constructivist theorySimilar to constructivist theory, socio-constructivist theory represented by Vygotsky (1978) emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZP
42、D) and scaffolding. In other words, learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teachers scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peers support, the learner can move to a higher level of un
43、derstanding and extend his/her skills and knowledge and knowledge to the fullest potential.1.4 What makes a good language teacher?Some people with an excellent command of a foreign language may not be able to teach the language well while others with a general command of the language can teach it ve
44、ry effectively. What do you think might account for this phenomenon?Task 4 Work in groups. Reflect on your own learning experience from early school years to the university. Have you had an excellent English teacher? Try to identify as many qualities as possible of your best English teacher(s). Note
45、 down all the qualities that you think are important for a good English teacher.It is clear that whether someone can become a good foreign language teacher does not solely depend on hisher command of the language. There are a variety of elements that contributes to the qualities of a good language t
46、eacher. These elements can be categorized into three groups: ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles (Parrot, 1993).Task 5 Ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles jointly contribute to the making of a good English teacher. All the adjectives in the box below cou
47、ld be used to characterize these three aspects.1. Work in groups of 4 and decide which adjectives describe ethic devotion, which describe personal styles and which describe professional qualities. Please write your answers on a separate piece of paper.2. Add any adjectives to the list which describe
48、 further qualities that you feel are missing.3. These adjectives are intended to describe positive qualities or styles. Do you feel that any of them could have a negative side as well? If yes, in what way? For example, an authoritative teacher may make the students feel assured, but may also make the student less free to disagree with himher. kind dynamic authoritative hardworking creative patient well-informed fair resourceful attentive warm-hearted reflective well-prepared flexible