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1、Landslides and Deformation of Rock SlopesLandslide is the downslope movement of rock,sediment,and soil under the influence of gravity without the aid of the other agents of erosion such as fiowing water,wide,or ice. Landslide debris are transported off a slope within a matter of seconds or minutes t
2、o the imperceptible slow creep of individual particles down a gradual slope.these types of movements may be triggered by the vibrations from earthquakes or the mechanical pushing or heaving of particles downslope,or they may occur spontaneously if the gravitational forces exceed the forces holding t
3、he marerial to the slope.Five basic types of landslide are definded, based on the type of movement involved: falls, siumps , and creep. Falls are created by the free fall of rocks or coherent masses of sediment from steep cliffs.The coarse debris that breaks loose from the cliff tumbles over the slo
4、pe and accumulates to form talus or scree deposits at the base of the slope.Slides are slope failures in which a large mass of rock and debris slips downslope along a zone of weakness,usually a bedding plane or structural surface(a fault or joint).The debris removed from the slope may come to rest a
5、nywhere from a meter to a kilometer downslope.A scar is left on the slope delineating the area in which the debris originated. Slumps are generated when a block of sediment breaks loose from its bed and slides downward and outward as a coherent unit along a curved faiure plane.As the failed block ro
6、tates from its original position,it produces a scarp or concave scar on the slope.Sliding and slumping may occur suddenly in one great landslide or in a series of small displacements that take place over months or years.Flows are created by the downslope movement of water saturated debris.The materi
7、al being transported may remain semi coherent or may become jumbled and mixed.These soggy masses may move rapidly downslope in a few centimeters (mudflows and debris flows on alluvial fans) or at a rate of only a few centimeters or meters per hour or day for a short period (solifuction and gelifract
8、ion);creep is the extremely slow,almost undetectable downslope movement of soil particles in the upper meter of the soil caused by a variety of mechanisms. Particles may simply roll down the hillside,burrowing animals may push sediment down the slope,or particles may slowly move or freezing and thaw
9、ing. The term colluvium is used to describe sediments that are eroded,trans-ported, and deposited on and at the base of slopes by gravity.Colluvial deposits range from accumulations of coarse rock fragments to clay-size particles but are commonly a poorly sorted mixture of both coarse and fine-grain
10、ed particles. In a slop in which the rock is jointed but where there are no significant discontinuities dipping out of the slope which could cause sliding. In an extreme case,where the rock mass consists of near vertical joints separating columns of massive rock,toppling movement and failure may occ
11、ur. For example aWahleach project is located 120 km east of Vancouver and power is generated from 620m of head between Wahleach Lake and a surface powerhouseb located to the Fraser River.Water flows through a 3500m long three meter diameter concrete encased steel lined shaft inclined at 48 to the ho
12、rizontal, a 300m long lower tunnel and a 485m long surface penstock to the powerhouse. The tunnels were excavated mainly in granodiorite which varies from highly fractured and moderately weathered in the upper portions of the slope to moderately fractured and fresh in both the lower portions of the
13、slope and below the highly fractured mass. Two main joint sets occur in the rock mass,one set striking parallel to the slope and other perpendicular to it.Both dip very steeply .Average joint spacings range from 0.5 to 1.0m.A few joints occur sub-parallel to the ground surface and these joints are m
14、ost welldeveloped in the ground surface adjacent to the inclined shaft.Thorough investigations failed to reveal any significant shear zones or faults oriented in a direction conducive to sliding. The top of the slope is buried beneath colluvial and fan deposits from two creeks which have incised the
15、 Fraser Valley slope to from the prominence in which the inclined shaft was excavated.This prominence is crossed by several linear troughs which trend along the ground surface contours and are evidence of previous down-slope movement of the prominence.Mature trees growing in these troughs indicate a
16、 history of movement of at least several hundred years. The water conduit operated without incident between the initial filling in 1952 and May 1981 when leakage was first noted from the upper access adit located near the intersection of the inclined shaft and the upper tunnel.This leakage stopped w
17、hen two drain pipes embedded in the concrete backfill beneath the steel lining were plugged at their upsteam ends.Large holes had been eroded in these drainage pipes where they were not encased in concrtete and it was concluded that this corrosion was responsible for the leakage.This conclusion appe
18、ared to be valid until 25 January, 1989 when a much large water flow occurred. Investigations in the dewatered tunnel revealed a 150 mm wide circumferential tension crack in the steel lining of the upper tunnel.about 55 m from its intersection with the inclined shaft.In addition, eight compressional
19、 bukle zones were found in the upper portion of the inclined shaft,Subsequent investigations revealed that approximately 20 million cubic metres of rock are involved in down-slope creep which,during 1989 1990,amounted to several centimeters per year and which appears to be ongoing.This downslope cre
20、ep appears to be related to a process of block rotation rather than to any deep seated sliding as was the case at both the Downie Slide and Dutchmans Ridge.While discrete element models may give some indication of the overall mechanics of this type of slope deformation,there is no way in which a fac
21、tor of safety,equivalent to that for that for sliding failure,can be calculated.Consequently, in deciding upon the remedial measures to be implemented,other factors have to be taken into .After thorough study by the BC Hydro and their consultants,it was decided to construct a replacement conduit con
22、sisting of an unlined shafte and tunnel section and a stell lined section where the rock cover is insufficient to contain the internal pressure in the tunnel. In addition to the construction of this replascement conduit to reroute the water away from the and potetially unstable part of the slope, a
23、comprehensive displacement and water pressure montioring system has been installed and is being montiored by BC Hydro.滑坡和岩质边坡的变形滑坡是岩石，沉积物，土体在重力作用下沿斜面项下的运动，它不仅包括其他因素如冲刷，侵蚀，风，冰的作用等。滑坡包括一些大体积碎屑物在几秒，几分钟迅速，灾难性的脱离坡体到一些细颗粒在边坡上的不可觉察的缓慢蠕动。这些类型的运动，可能由地震的震动或者机械力的冲撞或颗粒受到向坡下的牵引起滑动。根据滑坡运动形式定义为5个基本类型：崩塌，滑坡，塌落，流动和蠕
24、动。 崩塌是由都桥上岩石或者沉积物自由落体造成的。这些由陡峭跌落破坏的散散组粒碎屑物越过滑坡并在斜坡底形成碎石堆或岩屑堆。滑坡是指大块岩石或碎屑沿着软弱带，通常为岩层面或结构面（如断层和节理）滑动而破坏。从坡体上移动的碎屑可能会移动1米到1000米。将有刻痕留在斜坡岩石上，有刻痕的区域是碎屑原生位置。沉积物物快从原岩处发生破坏松动并作为一个整体沿弯曲破坏面向下向外滑动就形成崩塌。当破坏块体从起始位置滚动时，会在斜坡上留下陡坎和凹槽。滑坡和崩塌是一个大的物体突然发生运动或者一系列小的移动经过几个月乃至几年的移动。流动是指水饱和的碎屑沿边坡向下移动形成的。运动物质可能保持半粘结状态或发生参合和混合
25、。这些保水物质可能在几分钟快速滑下（如冲击扇上的逆流和碎屑流），或在不长的时间里，每小时，每天仅仅几厘米或几米的速率下滑（如泥流和冻融泥流）；蠕变极其缓慢，几乎察觉不到，由于不同机理引起的土颗粒向山坡下移动。有的土颗粒只是简单的向山坡下滑动，动物挖洞穴推出土体向下移动，或者颗粒只是简单的像坡下滚动，因冻融使颗粒缓慢向下移动。 崩积物是用来描述在重力作用下被侵蚀，搬运，沉积在坡上或坡地的堆积物。崩积物由粗岩石碎屑到粘粒颗粒组成，通常可以说是一种较差的粗颗粒和细颗粒混合物。 在边坡体内，如果岩石存在节理，但没有倾向坡外的引起滑动的重大不连续，边坡的变形和破坏是由一系列复杂的岩块转动，倾倒和动过程所
26、控制。在极端情况下，岩体由几乎垂直的节理分割成块柱状块时，可能会发生倾倒移动和破坏。 例如一个工程是Wahleach位于Vancouver以东120千米。发电是由Wahleach湖和与Frasere河相邻的地面发电站之间620米水头差发生的。在上游水流通过长3500米，直径3米的非衬砌隧道，其下通过一条长600米，直径2米的岩石明渠。与水平方向成48度夹角的混泥土外壳钢衬砌斜井，接着是一条长300米下游隧道和一条485米地表压力钢管输送到发电厂外。 发电洞在花岗闪长岩体内开挖，在边坡上部岩石破碎，中等风化，在边坡下部和严重破碎的岩石体之间为中等破碎和新鲜状态。岩石体中存在2组节理，一组走向平行
27、与边坡，另一组则垂直与边坡，2组倾角较陡。平均节理间距0.5到1.0米。另有少部分节理略平行与地表面，在地表靠近斜井发育。通过勘察，并没有发现有利于滑动方向上的任何大型的剪切带和断层。 边坡的破脚埋藏在崩积物和2条小溪形成的扇形沉积物下，小溪切割Fraser山谷斜坡，并形成一个山嘴，斜井布置在其中。山嘴被几条线性沟槽切割，且沿着地面等高线分布，说明这个山嘴曾经向坡下移动过。生长在沟槽的大树表明这些移动至少已有几百年。 从1952年蓄水到1981年5月前，输水管运行正常。1981年5月第一次发现在上游支洞入口有渗水即在斜井和上游隧道交叉处附近。当把2个钢衬这下埋置在混泥土填料的排水管上游段堵塞，
28、渗流就停止了。没有混泥土包裹的排水管形成大的侵蚀洞，因此得到的结论是侵蚀是形成渗透的原因。直到1989年1月25日才认为这个结论是对的，确实有大量渗水流出。 对排水洞调查发现，在距离斜井交叉处55米，上游隧洞钢衬中又宽150mm的环形张裂缝。另外才，在距离斜井上部有8条被挤压的弯曲带。随后调查发现，在1989到1990年，大约2000万立方米的岩石向斜坡下移动，达到每年有几厘米，现在仍在蠕动。这种向坡脚的蠕动和岩石的转动过程无关，而不同于Downie滑坡和Duthman山脊那样的深层华东。离散单元模型可以给出这种边坡变形的总体力学特征，但是对于滑坡破化时安全系数继续计算。于是采用修正方法加以弥
29、补，即把其他因数考虑进去。经过BC省水电公司和他们咨询师的精心研究，决定修建一个替代输水管道，包括非衬砌斜井，隧洞段和衬砌段组成，因为刚衬砌段部分上部岩体不能支撑隧洞内水压力。除了修建这条替代隧道，使水流不能通过边坡上部和潜在不稳定段，BC省水电公司还实施了系统综合性的位移和水压力监测。五分钟搞定5000字毕业论文外文翻译，你想要的工具都在这里!在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本
30、）和CNKI“翻译助手。具体操作过程如下： 1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献； 2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了； 3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。 另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。四大
31、工具： 1、Google翻译： google，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。我利用它是这样的。一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。回到我自己说的翻译上来。下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。 在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在g
32、oogle里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。 2、CNKI翻译： CNKI翻译助手，这个网站不需要介绍太多，可能有些人也知道的。主要说说它的有点，你进去看看就能发现：搜索的肯定是专业词汇，而且它翻译结果下面有文章与之对应（因为它是CNKI检索提供的，它的翻译是从文献里抽出来的），很实用的一个网站。估计别的写文章的人不是傻子吧，它们的东西我们可以直接拿来用，当然省事了。网址告诉大家，有兴趣的进去看看，你们就会发现其乐无穷！还是很值得用的。 3、网路版金山词霸（不到1M）： 4、有道在线翻译：翻译时的速度：这里我谈的是电
33、子版和打印版的翻译速度，按个人翻译速度看，打印版的快些，因为看电子版本一是费眼睛，二是如果我们用电脑，可能还经常时不时玩点游戏，或者整点别的，导致最终SPPEED变慢，再之电脑上一些词典（金山词霸等）在专业翻译方面也不是特别好，所以翻译效果不佳。在此本人建议大家购买清华大学编写的好像是国防工业出版社的那本英汉科学技术词典，基本上挺好用。再加上网站如：google CNKI翻译助手，这样我们的翻译速度会提高不少。具体翻译时的一些技巧（主要是写论文和看论文方面） 大家大概都应预先清楚明白自己专业方向的国内牛人，在这里我强烈建议大家仔细看完这些头上长角的人物的中英文文章，这对你在专业方向的英文和中文
34、互译水平提高有很大帮助。 我们大家最蹩脚的实质上是写英文论文，而非看英文论文，但话说回来我们最终提高还是要从下大工夫看英文论文开始。提到会看，我想它是有窍门的，个人总结如下： 1、把不同方面的论文分夹存放，在看论文时，对论文必须做到看完后完全明白（你重视的论文）；懂得其某部分讲了什么（你需要参考的部分论文），在看明白这些论文的情况下，我们大家还得紧接着做的工作就是把论文中你觉得非常巧妙的表达写下来，或者是你论文或许能用到的表达摘记成本。这个本将是你以后的财富。你写论文时再也不会为了一些表达不符合西方表达模式而烦恼。你的论文也降低了被SCI或大牛刊物退稿的几率。不信，你可以试一试 2、把摘记的内容自己编写成检索，这个过程是我们对文章再回顾，而且是对你摘抄的经典妙笔进行梳理的重要阶段。你有了这个过程。写英文论文时，将会有一种信手拈来的感觉。许多文笔我们不需要自己再翻译了。当然前提是你梳理的非常细，而且中英文对照写的比较详细。 3、最后一点就是我们往大成修炼的阶段了，万事不是说成的，它是做出来的。写英文论文也就像我们小学时开始学写作文一样，你不练笔是肯定写不出好作品来的。所以在此我鼓励大家有时尝试着把自己的论文强迫自己写成英文的，一遍不行，可以再修改。最起码到最后你会很满意。呵呵，我想我是这么觉得的。