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1、1 Articles and one, a little/a few, this, that1 a/an (the indefinite article)The form a is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a consonant sound:a man a hat a university a Europeana one-way streetThe form an is used before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or wo
2、rds beginning with a mute h:an apple an island an unclean egg an onion an houror individual letters spoken with a vowel sound:an L-plate an MP an SOS an x a/an is the same for all genders:a man a woman an actor an actress a table2 Use of a/an a/an is used:A Before a singular noun which is countable
3、(i.e. of which there is more than one) when it is mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing:/ need a visa. They live in a flat. He bought an ice-cream.B Before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of a class of things:A car must be insured =All cars/A
4、ny car must be insured.A child needs love =All children need/Any child needs love.C With a noun complement. This includes names of professions:It was an earthquake. Shell be a dancer. He is an actor.D In certain expressions of quantity: a lot of a couplea great many a dozen (but one dozen is also po
5、ssible)a great deal ofE With certain numbersa hundred a thousand (See 349 ) Before half when half follows a whole numberll/2 kilos = one and a half kilos or a kilo and a half But 1/2 kg = half a kilo (no a before half), though a + half + noun is sometimes possiblea half holiday a half portion a half
6、 share With 1/3 1/4, 1/5 etc a is usual a third, a quarter etc , but one is also possible (See 350 )F In expressions of price, speed, ratio etc5p a kilo 1 a metre sixty kilometres an hourlOp a dozen four times a day (Here a/an = per )G In exclamations before singular, countable nounsSuch a long queu
7、e What a pretty girl But Such long queues What pretty girls (Plural nouns, so no article See 3 )H a can be placed before Mr/Mrs/Miss + surnamea Mr Smith a Mrs Smith a Miss Smitha Mr Smith means a man called Smith and implies that he is a stranger to the speaker Mr Smith, without a, implies that the
8、speaker knows Mr Smith or knows of his existence(For the difference between a/an and one, see 4 For a few and a little, see 5 )3 Omission of a/an a/an is omittedA Before plural nounsa/an has no plural form. So the plural of a dog is dogs, and ofan egg is eggsB Before uncountable nouns (see 13)C Befo
9、re names of meals, except when these are preceded by an adjectiveWe have breakfast at eightHe gave us a good breakfastThe article is also used when it is a special meal given to celebrate something or in someones honour/ was invited to dinner (at their house, in the ordinary way) but/ was invited to
10、 a dinner given to welcome the new ambassador4 a/an and oneA a/an and one (adjective)1 When counting or measuring time, distance, weight etc we can use either a/an or one for the singular:1 = a/one pound 1,000,000 = a/one million pounds (See chapter 36.)But note that in The rent is 100 a week the a
11、before week is not replaceable by one (see 2 F)In other types of statement a/an and one are not normally interchangeable, because one + noun normally means one only/not more than one and a/an does not mean thisA shotgun is no good (It is the wrong sort of thing )One shotgun is no good (I need two or
12、 three )2 Special uses of one(a) one (adjective/pronoun) used with another/othersOne (boy) wanted to read, another/others wanted to watch TV(See 53 )One day he wanted his lunch early, another day he wanted it late(b) one can be used before day/week/month/year/summer/winter etc or before the name of
13、the day or month to denote a particular time when something happenedOne night there was a terrible storm One winter the snow fell early One day a telegram arrived(c) one day can also be used to mean at some future date.One day you II be sorry you treated him so badly (Some day would also be possible
14、 ) (For one and you, see 68 )B a/an and one (pronoun)one is the pronoun equivalent of a/anDid you get a ticket? Yes, I managed to get one The plural of one used in this way is someDid you get tickets? Yes, I managed to get some5 a little/a few and little/fewA a little/little (adjectives) are used be
15、fore uncountable nouns:a little salt/little salt a few/few (adjectives) are used before plural nouns.a few people/few people All four forms can also be used as pronouns, either alone or with of:Sugar? A little, pleaseOnly a few of these are any goodB a little, a few (adjectives and pronouns)a little
16、 is a small amount, or what the speaker considers a smallamount, a few is a small number, or what the speaker considers a small number.only placed before a little/a few emphasizes that the number or amount really is small in the speakers opinion:Only a few of our customers have accounts But quite pl
17、aced before a few increases the number considerably:/ have quite a few books on art (quite a lot of books)C little and few (adjectives and pronouns)little and few denote scarcity or lack and have almost the force of a negative:There was little time for consultation.Little is known about the side-eff
18、ects of this drug.Few towns have such splendid trees.This use of little and few is mainly confined to written English (probably because in conversation little and few might easily be mistaken for a little/a few). In conversation, therefore, little and few are normally replaced by hardly any A negati
19、ve verb + much/many is also possible:We saw little = We saw hardly anything/We didnt see much.Tourists come here but few stay overnight =Tourists come here but hardly any stay overnight. But little and few can be used more freely when they are qualified by so, very, too, extremely, comparatively, re
20、latively etc. fewer (comparative) can also be used more freely.Im unwilling to try a drug I know so little aboutThey have too many technicians, we have too fewThere are fewer butterflies every year.D a little/little (adverbs)1 a little can be used-(a) with verbs: It rained a little during the night.
21、They grumbled a little about having to wait.(b) with unfavourable adjectives and adverbs: a little anxious a little unwillinglya little annoyed a little impatiently(c) with comparative adjectives or adverbs:The paper should be a little thickerCant you walk a little faster?rather could replace a litt
22、le in (b) and can also be used before comparatives (see 42), though a little is more usual. In colloquial English a bit could be used instead of a little in all the above examples.2 little is used chiefly with better or more in fairly formal styleHis second suggestion was little (= not much) better
23、than his first.He was little (= not much) more than a child when his father died It can also, in formal English, be placed before certain verbs, for example expect, know, suspect, think:He little expected to find himself in prison He little thought that one day Note also the adjectives little-known
24、and little-used: a little-known painter a little-used footpath6 the (the definite article)A Formthe is the same for singular and plural and for all genders: the boy the girl the day the boys the girls the daysB UseThe definite article is used.1 When the object or group of objects is unique or consid
25、ered to be unique:the earth the sea the sky the equator the stars2 Before a noun which has become definite as a result of being mentioned a second time:His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree3 Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause:the girl in blue th
26、e man with the banner the boy that I met the place where I met him4 Before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one particular thing:Ann is in the garden (the garden of this house)Please pass the wine, (the wine on the table)Similarly, the postman (the one who comes to us), the car
27、(our car), the newspaper (the one we read).5 Before superlatives and first, second etc. used as adjectives or pronouns, and only:the first (week) the best day the only wayC the + singular noun can represent a class of animals or things.The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.The deep-freeze has m
28、ade life easier for housewives But man, used to represent the human race, has no articleIf oil supplies run out, man may have to fall back on the horse. the can be used before a member of a certain group of people:The small shopkeeper is finding life increasingly difficult the + singular noun as use
29、d above takes a singular verb. The pronoun is he, she or itThe first-class traveller pays more so he expects some comfort.D the + adjective represents a class of persons: the old = old people in general (see 23)E the is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, chains of m
30、ountains, plural names of countnes, deserts, regionsthe Atlantic the Netherlandsthe Thames the Saharathe Azores the Crimeathe Alps the Rivieraand before certain other namesthe City the Mall the Sudanthe Hague the Strand the Yementhe is also used before names consisting of noun + of + nounthe Bay of
31、Biscay the Gulf of Mexicothe Cape of Good Hope the United States of Americathe is used before names consisting of adjective + noun (provided the adjective is not east, west etc )the Arabian Sea the New Forest the High Street the is used before the adjectives east/west etc + noun in certain namesthe
32、East/West End the East/West Indiesthe North/South Pole but is normally omittedSmith Africa North America West Germany the, however, is used before east/west etc when these are nounsthe north of Spam the West (geographical)the Middle East the West (political)Compare Go north (adverb in a northerly di
33、rection) with He lives in the north (noun an area in the north)F the is used before other proper names consisting of adjective + noun or noun + of + nounthe National Gallery the Tower of London It is also used before names of choirs, orchestras, pop groups etcthe Bach Choir the Philadelphia Orchestr
34、a the Beatles and before names of newspapers (The Times) and ships (the Great Britain)G the with names of people has a very limited use the + plural surname can be used to mean the familythe Smiths = Mr and Mrs Smith (and children) the + singular name + clause/phrase can be used to distinguish one p
35、erson from another of the same nameWe have two Mr Smiths Which do you want-1 I want the MrSmith who signed this letterthe is used before titles containing of (the Duke of York) but it is not used before other titles or ranks (Lord Olivier, Captain Cook), though if someone is referred to by title/ran
36、k alone the is usedThe earl expected The captain orderedLetters written to two or more unmarned sisters jointly may be addressed The Misses + surname The Misses Smith.7 Omission of theA The definite article is not used1 Before names of places except as shown above or before names of people2 Before a
37、bstract nouns except when they are used in a particular senseMen fear death butThe death of the Prime Minister left his party without a leader3 After a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjectivethe boy s uncle = the uncle of the boyIt is my (blue) book = The (blue) book is mine4 Before n
38、ames of meals (but see 3 C)The Scots have porridge for breakfast butThe wedding breakfast was held in her father s house5 Before names of games He plays golf6 Before parts of the body and articles of clothing as these normally prefer a possessive adjectiveRaise your right hand He took off his coat B
39、ut notice that sentences of the typeShe seized the childs collarI patted his shoulderThe brick hit John s face could be expressedShe seized the child by the collarI patted him on the shoulderThe brick hit John in the face Similarly in the passiveHe was hit on the head He was cut in the handB Note th
40、at in some European languages the definite article is used before indefinite plural nouns but that in English the is never used m this way Women are expected to like babies (i e women in general) Big hotels all over the world are very much the same If we put the before women m the first example, it
41、would mean that we were referring to a particular group of womenC nature where it means the spirit creating and motivating the world of plants and animals etc is used without theIf you interfere with nature you will suffer for it8 Omission of the before home, before church, hospital, prison, school
42、etc and before work, sea and townA homeWhen home is used alone i e is not preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase, the is omitted He is at homehome used alone can be placed directly after a verb of motion or verb of motion + object, i.e. it can be treated as an adverbHe went home I arri
43、ved home after dark I sent him home But when home is preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase it is treated like any other noun:They went to their new home.We arrived at the brides home.For some years this was the home of your queen.A mud hut was the only home he had ever known.B bed, ch
44、urch, court, hospital, prison, school/college/universitythe is not used before the nouns listed above when these places arevisited or used for their primary purpose. We go:to bed to sleep or as invalids to hospital as patients to church to pray to pnson as prisonersto court as litigants etc. to scho
45、ol/college/university to studySimilarly we can be:in bed, sleeping or resting in hospital as patients at church as worshippers at school etc. as studentsin court as witnesses etc.We can be/get back (or be/get home) from school/college/university.We can leave school, leave hospital, be released from pnson.When these places are visited or used for other reasons the isnecessary:/ went to the church to see the stained glass. He goes to the pnson sometimes to give lectures.C seaWe go to sea as sailors. To be at sea = to be on a voyage (as pas