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1、The Research of Contemporary Critical Discourse Analysis1. IntroductionCritical Discourse Analysis, also called Critical Linguistics, Critical Language Study or Linguistics Criticism, it was proposed in 1979 by Hodge, Fowler, Trew Kress, et al in the book Language and Power.Critical linguistics has
2、nearly 20 years history. It is on the philosophical basis of Frankfurt schools western Marxist, and it is a branch of western critical theory in linguistics respect. Critical linguistics is based on the theory of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorfs language related theory and language determinism”,
3、 and Hallidays Systemic-Functional Grammar (SFG) theory. It is one of the main tasks of critical linguistics to reveal the relationship between ideology and language, with appropriate linguistics theory analyzing public discourse. Halliday called it as autonomous linguistics which is outside instrum
4、ental linguistics”. Its status has universally acknowledged by linguistics schools.The research of contemporary Critical Discourse Analysis was developed in the late 1970s from Critical Linguistics, which was mainly created by Britain and Australia. In 1991, the term critical linguistic was compiled
5、 into Crystals Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, and it was explained in detail by Malmkjaer in Linguistics Encyclopedia. At present, more and more scholars are applying CDA to study news reports, especially political news reports, for example, Kou Jies Critical Discourse Analysis of Politica
6、l News Reports in American and British Newspapers and Hilary Jankss Critical Discourse Analysis as a Research Tool. There are also some scholars analyzing Sino-US relation by study economic news reports with CDA, but until now, no scholars study reports about Hus state visit to US with CDA.2Literatu
7、re ReviewCritical Discourse Analysis (CDA), as a method of Discourse Analysis, develops rapidly since it was proposed. However, it doesnt have its own specialized theories or framework. Although the schools about CDA are various, they have an identical goal- to expose the ideologys influence to utte
8、rances, the utterances counteractive to ideology, and how the two elements root in and serve the social structure and power relation.2.1 Previous and Present Studies on Critical Discourse Analysis at Home and AbroadIn the past 20 years, more and more people begin to study Critical Discourse Analysis
9、. In 1993, the magazine Discourse and Society edited by Van Dijk published critical discourse analysis special”. Such writings on this aspect still has a lot more, for instance, Ideology: A Multidisciplinary Research (Van Dijk, 1998), Discourse and Social Changes (Fairclough, 1992), Critical Conscio
10、usness of Language (Fairclough, 1992), Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 1995) and Linguistics Criticism (Fowler, 1996), etc. All these suggest that Critical Discourse Analysis, as a new trend of Discourse Analysis, has been accepted by western countries to some extent. However, in China, it
11、is a completely new field, there are not so many the articles and books on this aspect. Basically have XinBins Language, Power and Ideologies: Criticism Linguistics, Rustic Opinion of English Discourses Critical Analysis, Critical Analysis of News Discourses Reported Speech and Methodology of Critic
12、al Discourse Analysis, Chen Zhonghua et als Commentary on Critical Discourse Analysis, Ding Jianxin et als Commentary on Critical Discourse Analysis, Dai Huihua et als Criticism Discourse Analysis: theory Commentary and example analysis.2.2 Significance of Present StudyThis paper, which begins with
13、news reports about Hus state visit to US and which is combined with the current critical linguistics tools, will analyze the characteristics of political news reports, and then will further discuss the attitude of the world media on Sino-US relationship development, the development of china-us relat
14、ions and its development trend.2.3 Features of News ReportsJournalistic English is one of the most widely used literature forms. News reports require efficiency, so news writing should be simple and brief. Journalistic English has some distinctive word features from other writings. Almost all terms
15、or jargons are adopted by news reports or news comments, such as technology, sports, military and other terms. In order to expand the publicity, to attract as many readers as possible and to report all the events which happen in society, journalistic English has to create new words, borrow foreign w
16、ords, seek slangs and figurative terms, therefore, journalistic words were developed. News is socially constructed. As Fowler (1991:4) has pointed out, News is a representation of the world in language and news is a representation in this sense of construction; it is not a value-free reflection of f
17、acts. Roger Fowler (1979) argued that news is a practice, a product of the social and political world. He said that the content of news report was not facts about the world, but in a very general sense ideas, beliefs, values, positions, or ideologies. By discussing the role of linguistic structures
18、in the construction of ideas in news coverage, he concluded that language was not neutral, but a highly constructive mediator. Generally speaking, each news report is made up of three parts: headline, lead and news body. The following will give a simple introduction of each part.2.3.1 Headline Headl
19、ine plays a very important role in news reports. It should be the most attractive part of the whole passage. As is known to all, people usually read newspapers roughly, and most of the newspaper readers tend to just grab the main idea of the whole passage, so the words appear in the headline should
20、be simple, figurative and attractive enough to draw the readers attention, so that the readers can read the passage further. Another feature of headline lies in its sentence structure. Often, the headline is a very brief sentence, or even it is not a complete sentence, the common feature is that the
21、 tense is not complicated.2.3.2 LeadThe lead part of a news report is of great importance. Generally speaking, a good lead should summarize the six essential elements of news - 5W1H, that is Who - the leading role of the eventWhat - the eventWhen - the time of the eventWhere - the place of eventWhy
22、- the cause of the eventHow - the way that the event happenedTo achieve this goal, lead is usually written in the form of long sentences, which are not recommended in general English writing. More information is accommodated at the expense of the simplicity of the syntax. Thats why long sentences ar
23、e frequently seen in the lead part of news report. 2.3.3 News ResourceIn the past decades of years, China Daily, 21st Century - have been the main English news resource of the most English researchers and learners in China. These newspapers follow the traditions of English News reports, offer fairly
24、 international reports to the readers according to real-world experience. Nowadays, the development of internet opened another door for the readers, and it brought them into a wider circle of the English news media world.2.3.4 Linguistic FeaturesJournalistic English has the following linguistic feat
25、ures.First, News reporters are always trying to use fewer words to report more facts and more knowledge, so the sentences of news reports are mostly long. Usually, there is only one long sentence in one paragraph. Sometimes, the reporter may not arrange the sentence in a correct way as he thinks of
26、something new adding to the text in a rush. This may make the readers feel confused. Of course, this kind of sentences can be very few.Second, most of the sentences are continuous tense. In journalistic English, the actions are written as if it were happening, aiming to give the sense of freshness t
27、o the readers. In everyday English, simple present or present progressive is usually used to show behaviors or actions that will happen in the future, and so it is in journalistic English. Therefore, when we do some journalistic English reading, we should not mix the things will happen with the thin
28、g is happening.Third, most sentences of journalistic English are simple sentence and in active tense. Active tense gives readers a sense of directness, and it makes the discourse unquestionable, and easily makes the newspaper readers agree with the reporter. That is how the ideology works. At the sa
29、me time, to describe the facts clearly and give the readers a clear line in a short time, the reporter use simple sentence frequently, constantly using simple sentences can help newspaper readers understand the development of the events. Sometimes, to express clearly, the reporter often expand the s
30、imple sentence with attribute, adverbial and appositive.Fourth, many quotations were used in journalistic English. This is because quotations can keep the reports Maximum Objectiveness, for quotations make readers believe that the reporter is just and that he doesnt give his own opinions. Discourse
31、representation is an important part of the news. However, this is also a category that often influenced by ideology. Quotations include direct speech and indirect speech. Direct speech means quoting the original intact words and the words will be put with quotation marks, thus, it seems that direct
32、speech can not be used to control ones mind; indirect speech means stating others words from the reporters own understanding and the words will not be put with quotation marks, thus, the indirect speech can be easily used. Actually, both of them can be make use of to express his political and cultur
33、al beliefs.In information age, reading English newspaper is one of the main channels to get information. Therefore, it is very valuable and of significance to study the linguistic feature of journalistic English.3Theoretical Framework3.1 Ideology in CDAIdeology is not wrong ideas in peoples mind, bu
34、t a neutral word which means the sum of ways in which people both live and represent to themselves their relationship to the conditions of the existence(Fowler), or the fundamental social cognitions that reflect the basic aim, interests and values of groups(van Dijk, 1993 ). Ideology widely exists i
35、n daily life and it has been naturalized, therefore it has become peoples habit, and gradually become non-ideological common senses. Critical Discourse Analysis aims to make these common senses unfamiliar, so that the relationship between power and discourse will be revealed and evaluated.Krishna sa
36、id: a discourse bears and imposes an ideology, and every ideology finds its discourse. One can then understand why every dominant class pays particular attention to the practice of language and controls its forms and the means of its distribution: the news, the press and literature. One can understa
37、nd why a dominant class has its favorite languages, its literature, its press, its orators, and why it tends to censor any other language.3.2 Faircloughs modelThe goal of critical discourse analysis is to analyze the relationships among language, authority and ideology. According to Fairclough, any
38、discourse is a three-dimensional concept, namely, composed of the text, the discourse practice and social practice. This view is shown in the pictures below.The above chart shows that discourse is the product of discourse practice” in which process the discourse generation, dissemination and accepta
39、tion” are included. All of these are determined by specific social practice conditions. Thus, discourse analysis should be three-dimensional, that is, to treat language as the main body, give linguistic description on the discourse, explain the mutual relations between the generative process of disc
40、ourse and text, and the relations between the discourse and social process.3.3 Systemic Functional GrammarThe main theoretical basis and method of the view mentioned above about critical discourse analysis come from Hallidays Systemic-Functional Linguistics, but also other linguistic theories are ab
41、sorbed, such as Speech Act Theory etc. Fowler, et al, point out that when carrying out the critical analysis on discourse, special attention should be paid to inspect the ideological implication of the transitivity, modality, conversion, classification and coherence, etc. In the latter half of 20th
42、century, the Systemic-Functional Linguistics School, which is represented by Halliday, seems very prominent among the numerous language schools. Systemic-Functional Linguistics includes “systemic grammar” and “functional grammar”, and Hallidays functional ideas mainly focus on his idea of metafuncti
43、on. The nature of language determines the peoples requirements on language, that is a essential function for language. Halliday reduced these daedal fuctions to three abstract metafunction of language: ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function. In the discourse analysis, we ca
44、n relate a certain kind of linguistic form and process with the three functions. 3.3.1 Ideational Function Ideational function refers to the expressions of humans various experiences in the world by language. The transitive system is one of the important systems, and its function is to express what
45、people do, see, and hear in the real world into various processes, and designate the participants and environmental ingredients of the processes. Transitivity system includes six processes: material process, psychological process, relational process, behavioral process, verbal process and existentia
46、l process.3.3.2 Interpersonal Function Interpersonal function is mainly made up of two functions: one is expressing relationships, the other is expressing identity. Interpersonal function involves the social identity of journalists, readers and the reported in the news and their relationships and th
47、e mutual interactions of discourse.This section analysis is focused on two points: one is mood, one is the communicational control.3.3.3 Textual Function Hallidays third metafunction is textual function. This function involves the foregrounding and backgrounding of information, whether the informati
48、on is rheme or theme, known or unknown, and the problem of textual cohesion and coherence, etc. Discourse representation is an important part of news and representing the words of those who have news value is also a category often influenced by ideology. Discourse reappearance has a variety of ways.
49、 Roughly speaking, there are two big distinctions of direct speech and indirect speech. Theme-rheme structure is a subordinate system of discourse function. Halliday thinks that theme-rheme structure and information structure is different. The speaker can utilize the potentialties provided by the context and reach his communicational purpose by the adjustment of theme-rheme structure