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1、Revision Contents:Unit 1 Language and Learning 1. What are the major views of language? What are their implications to language teaching or learning?Structural View: It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentence. Eac
2、h language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.Audiolingual approach: The teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching
3、 of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed. The principal features of audiolingualism are an emphasis on structures in the language which can be learned as regular patterns of verbal behavior and the belief that learning is a pr
4、ocess of habit formation. Functional View: It sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Most of our day-to- day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. Therefore, learners learn a language in order to do things w
5、ith it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Communicative approaches are based on this view of language. Interactional View: It considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is
6、 to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language, but also need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative context. Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on thi
7、s view of language are: Strategic interaction; communicative approaches.2. What are the major Views on language learning? What are their implications to language teaching?Behaviouralist theoryBased on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learn
8、ed the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of language learning is referred to as behaviouralism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in America. One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves endless “
9、listen and repeat” drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of the world today.Co
10、gnitive theoryIt seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomskys reaction to Skinners behavioural theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics.The key point of Chomskys theory is reflected in his most famous question: if language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a senten
11、ce that has never been said by others before.One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method.According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in
12、 which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task.Constructivist theory: Learning is a complex cognitive process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his or her own experiences
13、and what he /she already knows.Implications for classroom teachingTeaching should be built based on what learners already know and engage learners in learning activities.It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rotate or recall what is learned.Teachers need to design ac
14、tivities to interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners.Teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learners interest and curiosity for learning.Socio-
15、constructivist theory: It emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of Zone of Proximal Development(ZPD) and scaffolding.Learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. W
16、ith the teachers scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peers support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his / her skills and knowledge to the fullest potential.Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities1. The goal of CLT is to dev
17、elop students communicative competence.2. What is communicative compentence? Try to list some of its components and their implication to teaching.Communicative compentence refers to both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative s
18、ituations. According to Hedge, it includes five components. Linguistic competence - knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaningPragmatic competence - the appropriate use of language in social contextDiscourse competence - ones ability to create coherent written text or conversation and th
19、e ability to understand them (ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse /ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation)Strategic competence - strategi
20、es one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resourcesFluency- ones ability to link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitationImplications for teaching and learning:Linguistic competence Teachers need to help learner
21、s -achieve accuracy in the grammatical forms of the language;-pronounce the forms accurately;-use stress, rhythm, and intonation to express meaning;-build a range of vocabulary;-learn the script and spelling rules;-achieve accuracy in syntax and word formation.Pragmatic competence Teachers need to h
22、elp learners-learn the relationship between grammatical forms and functions;-use stress and intonation to express attitude and emotion;-learn the scale of formality;-understand and use emotive tone;-use the grammatical rules of language;-select language forms appropriate to topic, listener, or setti
23、ng, etc.Discourse competenceTeachers need to help learners-take longer turns, use discourse markers and open and close conversations;-appreciate and be able to produce contextualised written texts in a variety of genres;-be able to use cohesive devices in reading and writing texts;-be able to cope w
24、ith authentic texts.Strategic competence Teachers need to enable learners-to take risks in using the language;-to use a range of communicative strategies;-to learn the language needed to engage in some of these strategies, e.g. What do you call a thing that/person whoFluency Teachers need to help le
25、arners-deal with the information gap of real discourse;-process language and respond appropriately with a degree of ease;-be able to respond with reasonable speed in real time”.3. What is communicative language teaching?Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement t
26、o Situational Language Teaching. This was partly in response to Chomskys criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistics, as well as American sociolinguists.The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context
27、 for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs.Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary
28、 means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.This method is learner-centered and emphasizes communication and real-life situations. The role of the instructor in CLT is q
29、uite different from traditional teaching methods. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and controls the learning. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning.4. Principles in communicative language teachingCommunicatio
30、n principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learning supports the learning process.5. Strong version and w
31、eek versionA weak version: Learners first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use it in communication. It regards overt teaching of language forms and functions as necessary means for helping learners to develop the ability to use them for communication.A strong version:Str
32、ong version: The strong version claims that language is acquire through communication. Learners discover the structural system in the process of learning how to communicate. It regards experiences of using the language as the main means or necessary conditions for learning a language as they provide
33、 the experience for learners to see how language is used in communication.5. List some of the communicative activities.1) Functional communicative activitiesIdentifying picturesDiscovering identical pairsDiscovering sequence or locationsDiscovering missing informationDiscovering missing featuresDisc
34、overing “secrets”Communicating patterns and picturesCommunicative modelsDiscovering differencesFollowing directionsReconstructing story-sequencesPooling information to solve a problem2) Social interaction activitiesRole-playing through cued dialoguesRole-playing through cues and informationRole-play
35、ing through situation and goalsRole-playing through debate and discussionLarge-scale simulation activitiesimprovisation6. Main features communicative activities 7. The Task-based ApproachA task-based approach sees the language process as one of learning through doing. It stresses the importance to c
36、ombine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.The task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and
37、functional use of language for meaningful purposes.Task -based Learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-based lesson the teacher doesnt pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determin
38、ed by what happens as the students complete it.So it aims to provide learners with a natural context for language useAs learners work to complete a task，they have abundant opportunity to interactSuch interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand eac
39、h other and to express their own meaningBy so doing，they have to check to see if they have comprehended correctly and，at times， they have to seek clarificationBy interacting with others，they get to listen to language which may be beyond their present ability，but which may be assimilated into their k
40、nowledge of the target language for use at a later timeTask presented in the form of a problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that the learner holds and new knowledge7. What is a task?Any one of the following definitions is ok:A task is “a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, f
41、reely or for some reward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child. In other words, by task is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play and in between”. - Long (1985) A task is an activity which require learners to arrive at an outcome fr
42、om given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process. - Prabhu (1987) a piece of classroom work which involve learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally
43、focused on meaning rather than on form. -Nunan (1989) Tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.”A task is an activity in which students use the target language to do something, usually with a non-li
44、nguistic purpose.8. A task is believed to have four components: a purpose, a context, a process, and a product.9. What is PPP model?In this model, a language classroom consists of three stages: Presentation of new language item in a context-controlled practice (drilling, repetition, dialogue reading
45、, etc)-production of the language in a meaningful way (a role-play, a drama, an interview, etc.)10. A task-based language classroom consists of three stages. They are pre-task stage, the stage of task cycle, and the stage of language focus.Unit 3 1. The overall language ability required in the 2001
46、National English Curriculum includes the following aspects language knowledge, language skills, learning strategies, affects and cultural understanding.2. What is a syllabus?A syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching a
47、nd sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.3. What is curriculum?A curriculum, however, provides (1) general statements about the rationale about language, language learning and language teaching, (2) detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose, and (3) implementati
48、ons of a program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum.Syllabus is often used to refer to something similar to a language teaching approach, whereas curriculum refers to a specific document of a language program developed for a particular country or region.4. Designing principles for the National Engl