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1、专业英文文献原文及翻译Improvement of Concrete Shear Wall Structures by SmartMaterialsMehdi Ghassemieh1*, Mohammad Reza Bahaari1, Seyed Mohyeddin Ghodratian1, Seyed Ali Nojoumi2 1School of Civil Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 2Civil & Environmental Engineering Department, University of Californ
2、ia, Los Angeles, USA Email: *mghassemut.ac.ir Received May 7, 2012; revised June 10, 2012; accepted June 20, 2012 AbstractSmart materials have found numerous applications in many areas in civil engineering recently. One class of these mate-rials is shape memory alloy (SMA) which exhibits several uni
3、que characteristics such as superelasticity and shape memory effect. Due to these characteristics, research efforts have been extended to use SMA in controlling civil struc-tures. This paper investigates the effectiveness of SMA reinforcements in enhancing the behavior of shear walls, espe-cially wh
4、en subjected to seismic excitations. Two ordinary and coupled shear walls were introduced as reference struc-tures and were modeled by ABAQUS software. For improving the seismic response of the shear walls, vertical SMA reinforcing bars were proposed to be implemented like conventional steel reinfor
5、cements, throughout the height of the structures and in every connecting beam in the coupled shear wall system. The one dimensional superelastic model of SMA material was implemented in the computer software using FORTRAN code. The dynamic response of the shear walls subjected to seismic loading was
6、 investigated through time history analyses under El-centro and Koyna records. The results showed that using superelastic SMA material instead of steel bars caused remarkable reduction in residual displacement for both ordinary and coupled shear walls. In addition, SMA reinforcements could significa
7、ntly decrease the maximum deflection of the coupled shear wall system. Keywords: Smart Material; Shape Memory Alloy; Shear Wall; Superelasticity; Seismic Behavior1. Introduction Many multi-storey buildings contain shear walls around the elevator shafts and stairwells as lateral resisting sys-tems. F
8、or the concrete shear wall systems, it is difficult to satisfy the very ductile behavior conditions. Therefore, such structures have often suffered damages caused by earthquake events. Shearing damage, bending damage, sliding and overturning damage are usually four kind of damage occur in concrete s
9、hear wall during earthquake. If concrete shear wall can attain their initial shape after an earthquake, then problems associated with permanent damage can be addressed. Sometimes, there are several openings in these shear walls and if two such openings are on opposite sides, deep coupling beams are
10、supposed to interconnect the walls. These coupling beams are gen-erally used as a means of dissipating energy during earthquakes through experiencing inelastic yielding. Due to their small span to depth ratio, they require highly congested reinforcement in order to achieve ductile be-havior. Althoug
11、h dissipating energy through plastic hinging is a common practice in the design of multi-storey buildings, this practice usually results in significant residual displacements and the need to repair the struc-tural elements after the earthquake. To address the shortcomings of current practices, a new
12、 design approach using smart materials such as shape memory alloy (SMA) is proposed. SMA is one example of smart materials that exhibit several unique characteristics such as shape memory ef-fect, superelasticity, and energy dissipation features. Due to these characteristics, Shape Memory Alloys hav
13、e widely attracted attentions in passive control of structures in recent years. Dolce, et al. in a series of publications studied the effectiveness of SMA materials for use in seismic applications 1. They also studied the imple-mentation of various states of SMA materials for the use of special damp
14、ers in structures. They proposed different recentering or dissipating devices based on experimental results. Wilde et al. performed an analytical study of SMA-based seismic isolation system consist of laminated rubber bearing and superelastic SMA bars 2. They conducted time history analysis with dif
15、ferent excitation to compare the SMA-based bearing with conventional bearing with lead core. Dolce and Cardone experimenttally investigated the proper choice of alloy, the effect of temperature, SMA size and loading rate and number of cycles 3. Bruno and Valente showed the effectiveness of the use o
16、f SMA materials by analytical measures using simple pseudoelastic constitutive model for SMAs using damage index approach 4. Baratta and Corbi analyzed the dynamics of a structural elastic-plastic frame, en-dowed with pseudoelastic SMA tendons 5. DesRoches and Delemont evaluated the efficiency of us
17、ing SMA restrainers to reduce the response of decks in a multi span simply supported bridge 6. Masuda and Noori investigated the optimization of hysteretic characteristics of damping devices based on pseudoelastic SMAs 7. DesRoches et al. experimentally evaluated the properties of superelastic Ni-Ti
18、 shape memory alloys under cyclic loading to assess their potential for applications in seis-mic resistant design and retrofit 8. Abolmaali et al. compared the energy dissipative characteristics of bolted t-stub connections using steel and shape memory alloy (SMA) fasteners 9. Choi et al. proposed a
19、 new SMA- rubber bearing which is composed of a conventional elastomeric bearing and SMA wires wrapping the bear-ing in longitudinal direction 10. A multilinear constitu-tive model developed by Motahari and Ghassemieh was adopted to capture the most common behaviors of SMA 11. Czaderski et al. teste
20、d a reinforced concrete (RC) beam equipped with SMA material and compared it with conventional RC beam 12. The results proved that by using shape memory alloys it is possible to produce a RC beam which has variable stiffness and strength. Saiidi and Wang presented the application of SMA bars instead
21、 of steel bars in plastic hinge zone of reinforced concrete bridge piers 13. Motahari et al. also introduced a spe-cial SMA damper to have both re-centering and energy dissipating characteristics simultaneously 14. Li et al. experimentally studied the behavior of smart concrete beams with embedded s
22、hape memory alloy bundles 15. They used SMA bundles as actuators to achieve recovery force. Andrawes and DesRoches compared the efficiency of SMA restrainers with three other retrofit devices including conventional steel restrainers, metallic dampers and viscoelastic dampers 16. Johnson et al. condu
23、cted a large scale testing program to evaluate the effect of SMA restrainer cable on the seismic performance of in-span hinges of multiple-frame concrete box girder bridge sub-jected to strong ground motion 17. Rahman et al. in-vestigated the effect of cross section geometry on the bending of a beam
24、 and also buckling of a column made of SMA through a numerical study 18. Sharabash and Andrawes studied the application of SMAs as seismic passive damper devices for vibration mitigation of cable stayed bridges 19. The feasibility of superelasticity in increasing ductility capacity and decreasing re
25、sidual dis-placement of concrete bridge column was investigated by Saiidi et al. 20. Ozbulut and Hurlebaus explored the effectiveness of SMA-rubber based isolation systems for seismic protection of bridges against near-field earth-quakes. They also compare the performance of SMA- rubber based isolat
26、ion systems with SMA-based sliding isolation system 21. Kari et al. evaluated the effective-ness of a new dual bracing system for improving the seismic behavior of steel structures 22. In this study the behavior of concrete shear walls rein-forced with SMA bars is investigated. Finite element progra
27、m, ABAQUS, was used in order to assess the re-sponse of the structures subjected to seismic loading. Two ordinary and coupled shear walls were introduced as reference structures and their seismic behavior with and without SMA reinforcement was evaluated through time history analyses. 2. Shape Memory
28、 Alloy Shape Memory Alloys are new class of metallic alloys that display multiple incomparable characteristics, based on martensitic phase transformation. SMAs are able to undergo large strains (8% - 10%) without leaving per-manent deformations in the material. They can recover their initial shape a
29、t the end of the deformation process, instinctively (called superelasticity) or by heating (called shape memory effect) as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Stress-strain curves for SMAs: (a) superelasticity effect; (b) shape memory effectThe mosfavorable characteristic of SMAs which is used in passive c
30、ontrol of structures is superelastic behavior in which the material can recover large deformations of order of 8 percent while producing flag-shaped hysteresis. The second feature of the SMA is the shape memory effect. When the material is in Martensite form, application of stress leads to twinning
31、of Martensite. By removal of stress the detwinning process begins and at the zero stress, some residual strain will be remained that can be recovered by heating the material above a specific tem-perature. Other desirable characteristics of SMAs are high energy dissipation capacity, stability of hyst
32、eresis loop and high fatigue resistance. Added to all those characteristics, the relatively high stiffness and strength makes SMA a promising material for control of struc-tures in severe earthquakes. Although several alloys have the shape memory feature, the most widely used SMA in civil engineerin
33、g applications is Nitinol, which is a com-bination of Nickel and Titanium. However, since Nitinol is a very expensive material compared to steel, it may not be economical to use it unless high energy dissipation is demanded. 3. Analytical Models of Shear Walls This study investigates the seismic per
34、formance of two concrete shear wall structures equipped with superelastic SMA. The first structure had the width of 5.0 m, height of 15.0 m and thickness of 0.3 m. The second structure was a coupled shear wall with two interconnected con-crete walls. Each wall had the width of 3.0 m, height of 15.0
35、m and thickness of 0.3 m and each coupling beam was 0.6 m deep, 2.4 m length with 0.3 m width. Height between each level was fixed at 3.0 m. In order to attain the numerical behavior of the structures, finite element computer program (ABAQUS) was used in this study 23. Finite Element models of the f
36、irst and the second shear walls are presented in Figures 2 and 3, respectively. Concrete material had compressive strength of 32 MPa, Youngs modulus of 30 GPa, poisson ratio of 0.2, and density of 25 kN/m3. Concrete damage plasticity, devel-oped by Lee and Fenves 24 was utilized for a proper materia
37、l modeling of the concrete behavior in the nu-merical analyses. Lumped masses were placed at each node at story levels to represent the lateral inertial loads induced from the floor to the walls in time of earthquake excitations. In order to grant better understanding of the dynamic behavior of the
38、shear walls, a modal analysis was con-ducted for the reference structures by the ABAQUS computer program. Mode shapes and natural period of each mode are presented in Figures 4 and 5. As illus-trated, the first three fundamental periods of the first shear wall were 0.726, 0.157 and 0.134 sec, respec
39、tively and the coupled shear wall had the first three periods of 0.828, 0.202 and 0.131 sec, respectively. 4. Proposed Enhancement Technique The proposed method uses SMAs as reinforcement in the concrete shear wall for the purposes of eliminating the residual displacement. For the upgraded structure
40、, verti-cal SMA reinforcing rebars were proposed to be imple-mented like conventional steel reinforcements, through-out the height of the wall structures and in the all five connecting beams in coupled shear wall. No diagonal rebars were used as reinforcements in this research. For reaching the diff
41、erent percentages of reinforcements, the SMA and steel rebars were studied to posses various di-ameters and spacing. Since in the ABAQUS finite ele-ment program, the SMA mechanical behavior does not appear by default, thus the SMA material was imple-mented in the computer program by writing a subrou
42、tine using FORTRAN and attaching it to the main program as a subroutine material module.Since most civil engineering applications of SMA are related to the use of bars and wires, one dimensional phenomenological models are often considered suitable. Several researchers have proposed uniaxial models
43、for SMA. Figure 6 shows the 1D-superelastic model of SMA material 11 implemented in the computer model. This model is capable of describing the constitutive be-havior of superelastic SMAs at a constant temperature. The model requires 6 material parameters. The parame-ters used to define the material
44、 model are austenite to martensite starting stress (am-s), austenite to martensite finishing stress (am-f), martensite to austenite starting stress (ma-s), martensite to austenite finishing stress (ma-f), superelastic plateau strain length (L), and modulus of elasticity (EA). The SMA model represent
45、s an ideal-ized behavior for SMA material where no strength deg-radation occurs during cycling and the residual deforma-tion is taken zero at the end of each cycle. Further as-sumption is that austenite and martensite branches have the same modulus of elasticity ( = 1). Previous studies have shown t
46、hat such simplifications generally have neg-ligible effect on the response 25. Table 1 shows SMA mechanical properties defined in ABAQUS computer program as “User Implemented Material”. 5. Analyses and Results In this section, analyses were undertaken on two shear wall structures to evaluate the eff
47、ectiveness of the SMA rebars in seismic performance of the concrete walls. The behavior of the structures subjected to earthquake excita-tions was investigated through dynamic time history analyses on the numerical models, and the response of the structure was attained by subjecting them to the El-c
48、entro and Koyna earthquake records. To show the significance of the SMA reinforcements in improving the seismic response, the story displacements at each floor level were obtained from time history analyses. The re-sult of the new proposed system subjected to seismic excitations was then compared wi
49、th those of the original concrete structure (without SMAs) and also assessed against models with different percentages of SMA rein-forcements.5.1. The First Shear Wall Figures 7 and 8 compare the seismic response of the structure with steel or SMA reinforcement subjected to El-centro and Koyna records. The results showed that using superelastic SMA material instead of steel in con-crete shear wall can significantly reduce the residual dis-placement. In particular, in the