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1、On the Social Communicative Functions of English EuphemismTable of ContentsAcknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iAbstract & Key words in English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i
2、iAbstract & Key words in Chinese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iiiIntroduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11. The definitions of English euphemism. . . . . . . . . . . . .
3、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. The origins of English euphemism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22.1 The religious origin of English euphemism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22.2 The racial and national origins of English euphemis
4、m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32.3 Historical and political origins of English euphemism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43. Principles in the application of euphemism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43.1 The Politeness Principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43.2 The Defensive Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43.3 The Face Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54. The social communicative functions of
6、 English euphemism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54.1 The evasive function of English euphemism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4.1.1Functions of English euphemism for disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64.1.2 Functions of English euphemism for death. . . . . . . . . . . . .
7、 . . . . . . . .64.1.3 Functions of English euphemism for physiological phenomena. . . . .64.2 The polite function of English euphemism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74.2.1 Functions of English euphemism for old age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74.2.2 Functions of English
8、 euphemism for physiology deficiency. . . . . . . .84.2.3 Functions of English euphemism for education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84.3 The cosmetic function of English euphemism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 4.3.1 Functions of English euphemism for politics. . . . . . . . . . . .
9、. . . . . . .9 4.3.2 Functions of English euphemism for military affairs . . . . . . . . . . . .9 4.3.3 Functions of English euphemism for others. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105. The effects of euphemism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10、10Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12AcknowledgementsMy deepest gratitude goes first an
11、d foremost to Ms. Mao Yanwen , my supervisor, for her constant encouragement and guidance. She has walked me through all the stages of the writing of this thesis. Without her consistent and illuminating instruction, this thesis could not have reached its present form. Second, I would like to express
12、 my heartfelt gratitude to Ms. Shan Xuzhu, who led me into the world of English. I am also greatly indebted to the professors and teachers at the Department of English who have instructed and helped me a lot in the past four years. Last my thanks would go to my beloved family for their loving consid
13、erations and great confidence in me all through these years. I also owe my sincere gratitude to my friends and my fellow classmates who gave me their help and time listening to me and helping me work out my problems during the difficult course of the thesis.Abstract: Language reflects life, and is a
14、lways closely related to the society. Euphemism, as a common linguistic phenomenon in world culture, is widely used in every social class and field. During the communication, due to some certain restriction of behavior and morality, people tend to use euphemismused as a kind of lubrication, making t
15、he harsh, indelicate words sound tactful and pleasant. English euphemism plays a very important role in peoples social communication. English euphemism, as one of many euphemisms existing in the world, has its own deep origin, which include both the religious origin and the historical, literary orig
16、in. After the discussion of the origions of English euphemism, this thesis expounds the social communicative function of English euphemism from the three aspects: evasive function, polite function, and cosmetic function. It is found that peoples good use of euphemisms will be effective to promote th
17、e communication. Having a good understanding of the origin and social function of English euphemism and the English language culture can avoid many conflicts in the process of social communication.Key words: origin; communicative function; English euphemism摘要：语言反映生活，并且总是和社会紧密联系在一起。委婉语是世界文化中普遍存在的语言现象
18、，它广泛应用于社会各阶层和领域。在语言交谈中，由于一定的行为规范和道德准则的制约，人们通常使用委婉语作为“润滑剂”，使刺耳，不文雅的话变得委婉愉悦，它在人们的社会交际过程中发挥着重要作用。英语委婉语作为众多委婉语中的一种，具有其产生的深厚渊源，包括宗教与政治的，文学与历史的。本文在探讨英语委婉语的产生渊源之后从委婉语的避讳功能、礼貌功能以及掩饰功能三方面阐述了英语委婉语的社会交际功能。通过这篇论文的研究，可以发现，适当地应用委婉语可以有效地促进交流。通过充分理解英语委婉语的起源及其社会交际功能，进一步理解英语语言文化，可以以避免社会交际中的各种冲突。关键词：起源；交际功能；英语委婉语 iiiI
19、ntroductionEnright D.J. (1985) stated that “If euphemism doesnt exist, the movement of the world will stop and it will be filled with hatred. Nearly no one can live without euphemism.” As an essential and natural part of English language, English euphemism has attracted peoples attention for a long
20、time. When dealing with some unpleasant words, people usually choose some implicative expressions to lessen the disposition from both listeners and speakers and make it easier for people to accept the proposal. There are five parts in the body of this thesis. In the first part, the definition of Eng
21、lish euphemism is introduced. In the second part, origins of English euphemism are classified. In the third part, three principles in the application of euphemisms are discussed. The fourth part focuses on several social communicative functions of English euphemism. In the fifth part, the effects of
22、 English euphemism are analyzed. Communication without euphemism is unimaginable. Euphemism is used like lubrication, which makes the communication go on smoothly. 1. The definitions of English euphemismThe English word “euphemism” derives from Greek. The prefix eu- means well, pleasant, good, while
23、 the meaning of the etyma “pheme” is speech. Therefore the word euphemism means saying pleasant and adorable words. In the American Heritage Dictionary (2000) it is defined as “The act or an example of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive” and it
24、 is described in the New Edition of the Oxford Concise Dictionary (1976) as “Substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one; expression thus substituted.” In Websters New Collegiate Dictionary (1973) the definition reads, “Substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive e
25、xpression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant.”From the above definitions, it can be found that euphemism is an important rhetoric skill which is ubiquitous in English. When using euphemism, people embellish their expressions in an implicative way rather than deliver themselves d
26、irectly. As an expressing method, English euphemism is not only a cultural phenomenon, but also a social phenomenon. It just likes a mirror, which reflects some social and psychological phenomena.2. The origins of English euphemismEnglish euphemism has a long history. It could date back to the 11th
27、century in Great Britain. In that age, people range words into two types: “Obscene Vocabulary”, the uncourteous words which are easy to offend people, and “Genteel Vocabulary”, the pre-existence of English euphemism. Specifically, the origins of English euphemism could be classified into the religio
28、us origin, the racial and national origins and the historical, literary and political origins.2.1 The religious origin of English euphemismEnglish euphemisms derived from religions are mostly related to taboos. Dominated by early religious concept, people believe in the supernatural magic of languag
29、es and hold the belief that when they talk about bad things, bad things could really happen. In English-speaking countries, Christianity, the major religion of their societies, comfort people who are afraid of those taboos like death, diseases and sex. The euphemisms for death are most widely used i
30、tems, especially when they concern ones families and friends. There are many euphemisms from Bible concerning death, for example, to return to dust/earth; to pay the debt of nature; to answer the final summons; to go to heaven; to be asleep in the Arms of God; to yield up the ghost; to launch into e
31、ternity; to have ones name inscribed in the Book of life etc.For another thing, euphemisms for God and devil are also ubiquitous in English. The Ten Commandments of Bible has prescribed, “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh h
32、is name in vain.” According to Lin Fangbing (2008), in oral English, using “God” causally would be considered disrespect to the God. People adopt the semantic method, such as the Creator, the Maker, the Supreme (Being), Holy One, the Almighty, the Eternal, Our Father, the Saviour, King of Kings, Lor
33、d of lords, the Light of the World, Sovereign of the Universe. Some of them adopt the phonetic method, such as Gad, Gosh, Golly, Godfrey etc. There are many euphemisms for “the devil”, such as old enemy, old Ned, Old Nick, Old One, Oleun (Old Man), Old Scratch, Old Serpent, the Old Boy etc. For exam
34、ple, “He was frightened as if Old Harry were before him.” In English they often use “heck” instead of “hell”. “Hell” has other expressions: “the other place, a very uncomfortable place, the other way etc.” For example, “We were all going direct to Heaven; we were all going direct the other way.”2.2
35、The racial and national origins of English euphemismFrench in history was used as the language of British aristocrat, meanwhile Latin and Greek were considered as the kind of educated language. Therefore in English people usually use some French or Greek words to express some embarrassing events. In
36、 addition, due to the chauvinism of Great Britain in their economy, politics and military affairs, English euphemisms bear strong nationality such as some words constituted by French: Pardon my French (Please forgive my curse); French cap/letter (condom); French prints (erotic pictures); and some wo
37、rds include Dutch: Dutch act (suicide); Dutch widow (prostitute); Dutch cheer (the cheer comes from alcohol). Further more, there are also phases like go to Egypt (go to the washroom), Greek arts (homosexual), Chinese Red (heroin) and Portuguese Female pills (aborticide pills).Whats interesting, as
38、revenge, other languages treat English in the same way and then create English arts (algolagnia acts), English disease (syphilis) and English leave (secretly leave).With the culture exchange and the development of society, languages from different countries contribute a lot to the establishment of E
39、nglish euphemism.2.3 Historical and political origins of English euphemismIn history, sometimes euphemisms would change their connotations with the evolution of society. The alteration of euphemisms for African-American has the largest quantity and representativeness.Before the 20th century, both “b
40、lack” and “Negro” have the meaning of African-American. To some degree, “Negro” is even more euphemistic because in the 18th century, “Negro” had been the euphemism of “slave” such as Negro quarter (slave quarter); “Ill be no mens Negro.” While in the early 19th, with the advocacy of the slavery abo
41、lition, people believed the word “Negro” would make them recall the unpleasant ages of slavery, they began to transform “Negro” into “colored”. Nevertheless, in 1960s, the African-American Civil Rights Movement sprung up with the slogan “Black is beautiful”. People gradually forgot the derogatory se
42、nse of “black” and began to use this word.According to the above evidences, English euphemisms could derive from different fields and result in the diversity of English languages.3. Principles of euphemism applicationWhen using euphemisms, people usually tend to comply some principles unconsciously
43、to make sure their application of euphemisms effective and tactful. In fact, there are mainly three principles for people to obey: the politeness principle, the defensive principle and the face theory.3.1 The Politeness PrincipleThe politeness principle means when communicating with each other, the
44、reason why people use euphemism turns out to be politeness and trying to avoid offence and hurt. It is one of the Cooperative Principle by Grice (1989) and is also a significant motivation for people to apply euphemism. It is accordant to Leechs “Politeness Principle” (1987) which could means “to mi
45、nimize impolite expression and maximize polite expression.” For example, people use “cash advance” to convey the meaning of debt, and also make “out of game” the substitute of bankrupt to decrease the rude sense.3.2 The Defensive PrincipleDuring the communication, people are likely to evade some vul
46、garity and direct ways to protect their dignity and profit because they usually take their social status into consideration, that is the definition of the defensive principle. For example, house keepers are called domestic help and barbers are called beautician, people also use captain to call those
47、 head waiters.3.3 The Face TheoryBrown and Levinson (1978) had revealed an essential principle in communication The Face Theory. According to this principle, “face” is divided into “positive face”, i.e. the speakers hope to gain the agreement from the listener, and “negative face” which means the sp
48、eakers do not want their action blocked. Brown and Levinson believed that as long as one side has the threaten to lose face, their communication will probably fail. Euphemism will quite help to save peoples faces and avoid offence and embarrassment and consequently complete the communication. For example, when a man was seen his zipper open, one could tell him “Youve lost your license” rather than tell him “Your fly is open.” openly for it will easy to lose his face.These three principles appear in all ap