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1、Nonverbal communicationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaNonverbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. i.e, language is not the only source of communication, there are other means also. NVC can be communicated
2、through gestures and touch (Haptic communication), by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact. NVC can be communicated through object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, symbols and infographics. Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralang
3、uage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Dance is also regarded as a nonverbal communication. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of e
4、moticons.However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators d
5、uring interaction. Verbal vs. oral communicationScholars in this field usually use a strict sense of the term verbal, meaning of or concerned with words, and do not use verbal communication as a synonym for oral or spoken communication. Thus, vocal sounds that are not considered to be words, such as
6、 a grunt, or singing a wordless note, are nonverbal. Sign languages and writing are generally understood as forms of verbal communication, as both make use of words although like speech, both may contain paralinguistic elements and often occur alongside nonverbal messages. Nonverbal communication ca
7、n occur through any sensory channel sight, sound, smell, touch or taste. NVC is important as:When we speak (or listen), our attention is focused on words rather than body language. But our judgement includes both. An audience is simultaneously processing both verbal and nonverbal cues. Body movement
8、s are not usually positive or negative in and of themselves; rather, the situation and the message will determine the appraisal. (Givens, 2000, p. 4)HistoryThe first scientific study of nonverbal communication was Charles Darwins book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). He argu
9、ed that all mammals show emotion reliably in their faces. Studies now range across a number of fields, including , linguistics, semiotics and social psychology.ArbitrarinessWhile much nonverbal communication is based on arbitrary symbols, which differ from culture to culture, a large proportion is a
10、lso to some extent iconic and may be universally understood. Paul Ekmans influential 1960s studies of facial expression determined that expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise are universal.Clothing and bodily characteristicsUniforms have both a functional and a communicative
11、purpose. This mans clothes identify him as male and a police officer; his badges and shoulder sleeve insignia give information about his job and rank.Elements such as physique, height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, odors, and clothing send nonverbal messages during interaction. For example, a st
12、udy, carried out in Vienna, Austria, of the clothing worn by women attending discotheques showed that in certain groups of women (especially women which were in town without their partners) motivation for sex, and levels of sexual hormones, were correlated with aspects of the clothing, especially th
13、e amount of skin displayed, and the presence of sheer clothing, e.g. at the arms. Thus, to some degree, clothing sent signals about interest in courtship.Research into height has generally found that taller people are perceived as being more impressive. Melamed & Bozionelos (1992) studied a sample o
14、f managers in the UK and found that height was a key factor affecting who was promoted. Often people try to make themselves taller, for example, standing on a platform, when they want to make more of an impact with their speaking.Physical environmentEnvironmental factors such as furniture, architect
15、ural style, interior decorating, lighting conditions, colors, temperature, noise, and music affect the behavior of communicators during interaction. The furniture itself can be seen as a nonverbal message.Proxemics: physical space in communicationProxemics is the study of how people use and perceive
16、 the physical space around them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is interpreted.The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures and different settings within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into
17、four main categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space.The term territoriality is still used in the study of proxemics to explain human behavior regarding personal space. Hargie & Dickson (2004, p.69) identify 4 such territories:1. Primary territory: this refers to an area that is associ
18、ated with someone who has exclusive use of it. For example, a house that others cannot enter without the owners permission. 2. Secondary territory: unlike the previous type, there is no “right” to occupancy, but people may still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space. For example, someo
19、ne may sit in the same seat on train every day and feel aggrieved if someone else sits there. 3. Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set period, such as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a limited claim over that space, th
20、ey often exceed that claim. For example, it was found that people take longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to take that space. 4. Interaction territory: this is space created by others when they are interacting. For example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, ot
21、hers will walk around the group rather than disturb it. Chronemics: time in communicationChronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way we perceive time, structure our time and react to time is a powerful communication tool, and helps set the stage for communication.
22、Time perceptions include punctuality and willingness to wait, the speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The timing and frequency of an action as well as the tempo and rhythm of communications within an interaction contributes to the interpretation of nonverbal messages. Gudykuns
23、t & Ting-Toomey (1988) identified 2 dominant time patterns:Monochronic TimeA monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time is segmented into precise, small units. Under this system time is scheduled, arranged and managed.The United States is considered a monochronic socie
24、ty. This perception of time is learned and rooted in the Industrial Revolution, where factory life required the labor force to be on hand and in place at an appointed hour (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 238). For Americans, time is a precious resource not to be wasted or taken lightly. We buy t
25、ime, save time, spend time and make time. Our time can be broken down into years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds and even milliseconds. We use time to structure both our daily lives and events that we are planning for the future. We have schedules that we must follow: appointments that we mus
26、t go to at a certain time, classes that start and end at certain times, work schedules that start and end at certain times, and even our favorite TV shows, that start and end at a certain time.” As communication scholar Edward T. Hall wrote regarding the Americans viewpoint of time in the business w
27、orld, “the schedule is sacred.” Hall says that for monochronic cultures, such as the American culture, “time is tangible” and viewed as a commodity where “time is money” or “time is wasted.” The result of this perspective is that Americans and other monochronic cultures, such as the German and Swiss
28、, place a paramount value on schedules, tasks and “getting the job done.” These cultures are committed to regimented schedules and may view those who do not subscribe to the same perception of time as disrespectful.Monochronic cultures include Germany, Canada, Switzerland, United States, and Scandin
29、avia. edit Polychronic Time Main article: PolychronicityA polychronic time system is a system where several things can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to scheduling time. Unlike Americans and most northern and western European cultures, Latin American and Arabic cultures use the
30、polychronic system of time.These cultures are much less focused on the preciseness of accounting for each and every moment. As Raymond Cohen notes, polychronic cultures are deeply steeped in tradition rather than in tasksa clear difference from their monochronic counterparts. Cohen notes that Tradit
31、ional societies have all the time in the world. The arbitrary divisions of the clock face have little saliency in cultures grounded in the cycle of the seasons, the invariant pattern of rural life, and the calendar of religious festivities (Cohen, 1997, p. 34).Instead, their culture is more focused
32、on relationships, rather than watching the clock. They have no problem being “late” for an event if they are with family or friends, because the relationship is what really matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a much less formal perception of time. They are not ruled by precise calendars
33、and schedules. Rather, “cultures that use the polychronic time system often schedule multiple appointments simultaneously so keeping on schedule is an impossibility.”Polychronic cultures include Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Mexico, Philippines, India, and many in Africa.Movement and body positionKinesicsThe
34、 term was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of Birdwhistells work involved making film of people in social situations and analyzing them to show different levels of communication
35、 not clearly seen otherwise. The study was joined by several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson.PosturePosture can be used to determine a participants degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a perso
36、n has for the other communicator. Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one persons left side is parallel to the others right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and positive speech; a person wh
37、o displays a forward lean or a decrease in a backwards lean also signify positive sentiment during communication. Posture is understood through such indicators as direction of lean, body orientation, arm position, and body openness.GestureA gesture is a non-vocal bodily movement intended to express
38、meaning. They may be articulated with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head, face and eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling ones eyes. The boundary between language and gesture, or verbal and nonverbal communication, can be hard to identify.Although the study of gestur
39、e is still in its infancy, some broad categories of gestures have been identified by researchers. The most familiar are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the handwave used in the US for hel
40、lo and goodbye. A single emblematic gesture can a have very different significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to highly offensive.The page List of gestures discusses emblematic gestures made with one hand, two hands, hand and other body parts, and body and facial gest
41、ures.Another broad category of gestures comprises those gestures used spontaneously when we speak. These gestures are closely coordinated with speech. The so-called beat gestures are used in conjunction with speech and keep time with the rhythm of speech to emphasize certain words or phrases. These
42、types of gestures are integrally connected to speech and thought processes. Other spontaneous gestures used when we speak are more contentful and may echo or elaborate the meaning of the co-occurring speech.For example, a gesture that depicts the act of throwing may be synchronous with the utterance
43、, He threw the ball right into the window. Gestural languages such as American Sign Language and its regional siblings operate as complete natural languages that are gestural in modality. They should not be confused with finger spelling, in which a set of emblematic gestures are used to represent a
44、written alphabet.Gestures can also be categorised as either speech-independent or speech-related. Speech-independent gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and have a direct verbal translation. A wave hello or a peace sign are examples of speech-independent gestures. Speech r
45、elated gestures are used in parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal communication is used to emphasize the message that is being communicated. Speech related gestures are intended to provide supplemental information to a verbal message such as pointing to an object of discussion.Gestures
46、 such as Mudra (Sanskrit) encode sophisticated information accessible to initiates that are privy to the subtlety of elements encoded in their tradition.Haptics: touching in communicationHaptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication. Touches that can be defined as communication include
47、 handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Touching of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching. These behaviors are referred to as adaptor and may send messages that reveal the intentions or fe
48、elings of a communicator. The meaning conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the context of the situation, the relationship between communicators, and the manner of touch. Humans communicate interpersonal closeness through a series of non-verbal actions known as immediacy behaviors. Examples o
49、f immediacy behaviors are: smiling, touching,open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these immediacy behaviors are known to be high contact cultures.Haptic communication is the means by which people and other animals communicate via touching. Touch is an extremely important sense for humans; as well as providing information about surfaces and textures it is a component of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships, and vit