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1、A Contrastive Study of English and Chinese Euphemism1. IntroductionIn every society there are certain things that are not supposed to be speakable or mentioned directly. A fair number of words are labeled as frivolous, vulgar, or at least inconsiderate. But in communication, for better maintaining s
2、ocial relationship and exchanging ideas, people have to resort to a kind of language, which can make distasteful ideas seem acceptable or even desirable. This type of language is defined as “euphemism” in linguistics and it comes in a variety of forms and is used for a variety of reasons. Unlike oth
3、er figurative language devices, for example, the metaphor of poetry or prose, euphemism aims to surprise and entertain, strives to avoid offence by means of circumlocution. As a communicative skill“telling it like it isnt,” euphemism abounds in our life. Euphemisms are powerful linguistic devices wh
4、ich “are embedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plainspoken, ever get through a day without using them.” Euphemisms has close relationships with the culture ，and it truly reflects the life and values of people and their history . Euphemism is a pa
5、rticularly good medium for access to the force of language that has provided an effective approach to understand the human mind .The study of Chinese and English euphemism can help us understand the Chinese and western cultures and promote the international development, because euphemism is widely u
6、sed in international negotiations, So there is a great need for us to study euphemism, especially the communicative principles of English and Chinese euphemism. The euphemism exists relatively to direct speech. Euphemism is the “lubrication” of linguistic communication. As a result, achievements in
7、the study of euphemism have been conspicuous. Thus, on the basis of others researches, this essay will do a comprehensive analysis of English euphemisms and Chinese euphemisms by analyzing their linguistic and cultural characteristics contrastively.2. Definition of Euphemism2.1. The definition of En
8、glish euphemismThe word “euphemism” is derived from the Greek word “euphemismos”, which means “fair speech”. The prefix “eu” means “good, sound well” and the “phoneme” means“ saying” or “speech”. And thus the literal meaning of” euphemism” is “to speak with good words or in pleasant manner”. Some of
9、 the definitions are listed below: that figure of speech which consists in the substitution of a word or expression of comparatively favorable implication or less unpleasant associations, instead of the harsher or more offensive one that would more precisely designate what is intended.( Oxford Engli
10、sh Dictionary,1989) the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought substituted. (Websters Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, 1996) Euphemizing is generally defined as substituting an inoffensive or pleasant term for a more explicit, offensive one,
11、thereby veneering the truth by using kind words.(Enright D.J., 1985)Word, etc. used in place of one avoided as e.g. offensive, indecent, or alarming. (Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Shanghai Foreign Languages Publishing House, 2000) Used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in
12、order to avoid possible loss of face: either ones own face or through giving offences, that of the audience, or of some third party. (Allen, K. and Burbidge, K., 1991:18)Given from the perspective of rhetoric, all the above definitions are determined in a narrow sense. Many linguists think that the
13、definition of euphemism needs to be framed in a broad sense. American linguist, Bollinger Dwight once pointed out: “Euphemism is not restricted to the lexicon; there are grammatical ways of toning something down without actually changing the content of the message.”2.2. The definition of Chinese eup
14、hemismEuphemism (委婉语) has existed in the Chinese language for thousands of years. The earliest literal application of euphemism is found in The Book of Songs(诗经), a book containing Chinese poems composed between the 11th century B.C. and the 6th century B.C. Take The Mountain Gales(谷风) for example.
15、In “There blow the mountain gales; foul weather still prevails” (“习习谷风，以阴以雨” ), the author indicates that the unfortunate event is going to take place by describing cloudy weather and rain. When Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (汉武帝, 15687 B.C.) proscribed all nonConfucian and espoused Confucianism as
16、the orthodox state ideology and abolished other schools of thought （罢黜百家，独尊儒术）, people enjoyed rare ideological freedom and had to be careful with their words and deeds or they would be punished or even executed. As such, euphemism ( 委婉语 ) developed and flourished in Chinas feudal society.The Chines
17、e equivalent for “euphemism” is “委婉”，“婉转”，or the most popular one “婉曲” containing “婉言” and “曲语”; “婉言” means “substituting an implicit expression for an explicit one” while “曲语” implies the original meaning through describing things relevant to it. Lets compare:我尝想：公文书里罢黜一个人的时候常用 “人地不宜”四字，总算是一个比较体面的下
18、台的借口。（梁实秋骆驼祥子）阿刘哑告诉，姓孙的那几个人打牌，声音太闹，给法国管事查到了，大吵其架，自己的饭碗也砸破了，等会就得卷铺盖下船。（钱钟书围城）Example 1 falls into“婉言” ,using an implicit parlance to reduce the provocation. Example 2 belongs to“曲语” in Chinese, or “periphrasis” in English. So it is apparent here that “euphemism” in English and “委婉”in Chinese are simi
19、lar in that both use mild, agreeable, roundabout expressions in place of coarse, painful, and offensive ones.The various definitions of euphemism presented by Chinese scholars are similar to those given by westerners. Chen Wangdao (陈望道) was the first person who gave euphemism（in his words “婉曲”and “讳
20、饰”）a definition. In his Introduction to Rhetoric (修辞学发凡)，the definition reads, “婉曲辞” means “to say something indirectly, but connoting and substituting it with roundabout and implicit words or even metaphorical expression.”(说话时不直白本意，只用委曲含蓄的话来烘托暗示的叫婉曲辞); Chen Wangdao says that when we speak of tabooe
21、d things, we do not “call a spade a spade”, but use pleasant expressions to cover them up is “讳饰辞格”(说话时遇有犯忌触讳的事物，便不直说该事该物 ，却用旁的话来装饰美化的，叫做讳饰辞格。)At the beginning of the 1980s, Chen Yuan(陈原) defined euphemism from the socialcultural perspective, “Euphemism more or less originates from taboo; euphemism
22、is to use pleasant, implicit and less offensive wordsto substitute the language taboo.” The definition put forward by Chen Yuan combines the euphemism (婉曲辞) with taboo words (讳饰辞格) and reveals the direct relation between euphemism and taboo, which has been accepted by Chinese linguists.Though schola
23、rs at home and abroad have defined euphemism differently from different perspectives, the above-mentioned definitions share some features: .The purpose of using euphemisms is to avoid directly speaking out the unpleasant or taboo reference like death, the dead, the supernatural, etc. . Euphemism is
24、a kind of polite and roundabout mode of expression. Euphemism is used to soften or beautify the unpleasantness of reality.3. Language, Culture, Taboo and EuphemismEuphemisms are societys basic lingua franca. As such, they are outward and visible signs of our inward anxieties, conflicts, fears, and s
25、hames. They are like radioactive isotopes. By tracing them, it is possible to see what has been and is going on in our language, our minds, and our culture. Rawson (1981:1)3.1. Language and EuphemismHugh Rawson (1981:3) pointed out the close relation between language and euphemism, “Euphemisms are e
26、mbedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plain-spoken, ever get through a day without using them.” The relation between language and euphemism is so intrinsically close that it is impossible to study one without an analysis of the other.First of all,
27、 language is the vehicle of euphemism. Ronald Wardhaugh (1986:229) said, “Language is used to avoid saying certain things as well as to express them.” To some extent, we can say that where there is language, there is euphemism. In our daily life, usually certain things are not said for some reasons.
28、 If they are said, they should be said in very roundabout ways. In this case, we have the employment of euphemisms consciously and unconsciously so as to avoid mentioning certain matters directly, which can make unpleasant things sound better and acceptable.Secondly, euphemism is one form of languag
29、e; we can derive euphemism from family talks, official meetings, literary words, scribbles on walls, telephone talks, television programs, letters, cards, advertisements, E-mails, and so on. A casual look at language will show that there are a host of linguistic devices, which are habitually adopted
30、 in presenting euphemism. Such figures of speech as hyperbole, metaphor, understatement, circumlocution and many others are so commonly used in euphemistic utterances that when people discuss euphemism, rhetorical analysis takes up the whole picture of euphemistic language analysis.Thirdly, as far a
31、s the change of euphemism is concerned, euphemism has experienced the process of growth, development and decline. Therefore, euphemism not only expands and enriches English vocabulary but also contributes to the appropriate and effective use of the English language. And what is more, euphemistic eff
32、ect enables language communication to go smoothly and successfully. 3.2. Culture and EuphemismEuphemism, as an indispensable part of every language, is a mirror of morality, customs, politics, life style, social psychology, etc. Euphemism itself cannot exist without social culture with the evidence
33、that expressions used in sensitive areas tend to pick up negative connotations and be replaced by euphemisms. We are sensitive about death, so “grave digger” was replaced by “undertaker”, originally a general word for someone who assumes a job or a mission; later on “undertaker” was replaced with th
34、e Latinate “mortician”. We are sensitive about bodily functions, so there are many euphemisms for “bathroom” (itself a euphemism, replacing the earlier euphemism “toilet”, from the French “toilette”, originally a cloth used in shaving or hairdressing). Learning euphemism well means more than merely
35、mastering the pronunciation, words and grammar. It means learning to see the world as native speakers of that language see it, learning the ways in which their language reflects the ideas, customs, and behavior of their society, and learning to understand their “language of the mind”. The relationsh
36、ip between euphemism and culture is obvious: euphemism, as a culturallinguistic product, displays its multiple mapping relations with culture; it changes along with the development of society, and the use of euphemism varies with the variation of the context. It is a reflection of culture and carrie
37、s vestigial patterns once dominant in a society. Within a single culture, whether acceptable or forbidden, the subjects and portions of euphemisms have varied from one historical period to another. Understanding of the culture underlying euphemisms enables us to catch the meaning conveyed. 3.3. Tabo
38、o and EuphemismEuphemism originates from verbal taboo, and verbal taboo originates from religious superstition, which reflects the importance of social psychology in the origin of euphemism. Taboo and euphemism are two closely related cultural and linguistic phenomena of human society. We cant talk
39、about one without referring to the other.Almost any of the cultures in the world has its own taboo. The word “taboo” is from Polynesian, meaning “sacred” or “accused”. And there are two aspects of verbal taboo: one is wordfetishism; the other is the forbidden use of language. In uncivilized and crud
40、e society, the primitives were often confronted with puzzling and threatening situations and phenomena, such as death and diseases. As they couldnt understand and explain the extraordinary events and performance, success and failure, they worshiped, and even dreaded the supernatural. Such psychology
41、 leads to superstition, and then developed into Fetishism. The specific language was also defied, that is, Word Fetishism. Out of the worship of gods and ghosts, their names must be avoided. So their names became the earliest taboo words, and other words used to replace them became the earliest euph
42、emisms. When a taboo word is abandoned, people have to find another word to fill up the vacancy. Thats the way euphemism is created. In both the English and the Chinese language speech community, the most obvious taboos have to do with bodily functions, body parts, death etc. Taboo changes over time
43、. New taboos are racism, ageism, and taboos concerning other social and commercial life. Modern taboos are motivated more by notion of decency, politeness, decorum and communicative appropriateness than by pure fear or sense of danger in earlier taboo practice. They reflect sensitivity to and respec
44、t for others feelings. Meanwhile, euphemism develops with taboo, so euphemistic words and expressions not only allow us to talk about unpleasant things and disguise or neutralize the unpleasantness, e.g., the subjects of sickness, death and dying, unemployment, and criminality, but also allow us to
45、give labels to unpleasant tasks and jobs in an attempt to make them sound almost attractive. 4. Similarities between English and Chinese euphemismThe two euphemisms may be based on different culture and historical background, but their basis of psychological and linguistic pattern is the same. There
46、 are same similarities between English and Chinese euphemism.4.1Similar originsEuphemism is the product of psychological taboo. Euphemism and taboo are interrelated with each other .since ancient times , human beings have some mysterious feelings about taboo. The taboo things are often in a “dignifi
47、ed, elegant “way to enter verbal communication. Social etiquette often needs some mild and implicit ways .once faced with provocative words, sensitive topics will be transferred. so communication can be carried out smoothly and harmoniously. Intercommunicative sides are more willing to accept that.A
48、nd then taboo euphemistic rhetoric come into being. this is the common source of the Chinese euphemism and English euphemism. the main reason of producing euphemism is “taboo”. Early humans can not understand the essence of natural phenomena and natural forces, and then created a kind of worship of
49、nature .people are superstitious about ghost and supernatural; then myths about demon become taboo terms .as a special social phenomenon taboo includes two aspects: on the one hand, well-thought-of fetishes are not allowed to be used indiscriminately; on the other hand, depreciatory subjects can not be touched. In fact, the language of taboo consists of two aspects; one is the language of fetishism and the other is the disabled language