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1、n1) Introduction n2) Prototypes and Categories Week 1and 2nDefining cognitive linguisticsnThree main approaches of cognitive linguisticsnReferencesIntroduction nCognitive Linguistics is the most rapidly expanding school in modern Linguistics. It aims to create a scientific approach to the study of l
2、anguage, incorporating the tools of philosophy, neuroscience and computer science. nCognitive approaches to language were initially based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it (philosophical thinking about the mind).nBe distinguished from a logical view of langu
3、age.Definition of cognitive linguistics Our car has broken downTraditionalExplanationGrammatical structureModern ExplanationEstablish a body of Logical rules for generatingthe grammatical sentencesCognitive ExplanationRepresented by three main approachesnExperiential view nProminence view nAttention
4、 view Three main approaches of cognitive linguisticsnIts main claim is that instead of postulating logical rules and objective definitions on the basis of theoretical considerations and introspection, a more practical and empirical path should be pursued.nFor example, Ask language users to describe
5、what is going on in their minds when they produce and understand words and sentences. (a car) Experiential view nThe experiential view of words provides a much richer and more natural description of their meanings. nCognitive linguists believe that our shared experience of the world is also stored i
6、n our everyday language and can thus be gleaned from the way we express our ideas.nThe transfer of our experience of well-known objects and events is even more important where abstract categories like emotions is involved. For example, Dad exploded.nThe prominence view provides one explanation of ho
7、w the information in a clause is selected and arranged.nFor Example nThe car crashed into the tree.nThe tree was hit by the car.Prominence viewnThis view is based on the assumption that what we actually express reflects which parts of an event attract our attention. nFor example nThe car crashed int
8、o tree. nAnalysing the sentence in terms of attention allocation, the attentional view explains why one stage of the event is expressed in the sentence and why other stages are not.Attentional viewn辛斌辛斌. 认知语言学理论的发展、应用及跨学科研究第四届全国认知语言学研讨会综述 J.外语研究, 2006(6)n廖巧云廖巧云. 认知语言学研究的新概括-认知语言学述介 J, 现代外语 2005(2)n熊
9、学亮熊学亮. 认知语言学简述 J. 外语研究,2001(3)n张辉张辉. 认知语言学研究现状 J. 外语研究,2001(3)nReferencesnIntroduction: Language and Categorization(范畴化)nFocal colours(焦点色) nThe psychological background of focal coloursnPrototypical shapes(形状)nPrototypical organism and objectnGood examples, bad examples and categorynReferencesProto
10、types and CategoriesnVague entity and vagueness (含糊性,模糊性)nFuzziness and fuzzy category (模糊范畴) nLabovs experiments and conclusionGood examples, bad examples and category boundariesnInformants in Labovs experiments were shown line drawings of cups and other vessels. The drawings were presented one by
11、one and the informants were asked to name them. nThe result of the experiment shows that consistency is 100 percent for prototype but decreases towards the marginal members. Labovs experiment Conclusion nCategories do not represent arbitrary divisions of the phenomena of the world, but should be see
12、n as based on the cognitive capacities of the human mind.nCognitive categories of colours, shapes, but also of organisms and concrete objects are anchored in conceptually salint protypes, which play a crucial part in the information of categories.n the boundaries of cognitve categories are fuzzy, i.
13、e. neighbouring categories are not separated by rigid boundaries, but merged into each other.nBetween prototypes and boundaries, cognitve categories contain members which can be rated on a typicality scale ranging from good to bad examples.Note: cognitive categories are equivalent with the meanings
14、of these words; while words which are polysemous (多义词) might denote several categories. (Chair-主席,椅子)nThe terms vague entity and vagueness refer to one type of transition zone, which arises from the observation that some concrete entities do not have clear-cut boundaries in reality ( knee and other
15、body parts; fog, snow and similar weather phenomena and landscape forms like valley or mountain. Vague entity and vaguenessnFuzziness refers to the category boundaries of entities ( chair etc.) and these categories are the product of cognitive classification. It is not the boundaries of entities tha
16、t are vague , but the boundaries of these cognitive categories (here: chairs and non-chairs).nIn fact, there are some cases where vagueness and fuzziness coincide. (mountain)nAll types of concrete entities and natural phenomena like colours are conceptually organized in terms of prototype categories
17、, whose doundaries do not seem to be clear-cut, but fuzzy.Fuzziness and fuzzy category nDo exercise2,4 on page 20nThe notion of prototype can be extended to entities which are less obviously perceptual.nRoschs experiments (1973,1975)nAsk the students to judge the goodness (typicality) of category me
18、mbers (birds, fruit etc.) without referring to the textbooks.nThe goodness ratings were also confirmed in matching experiments in which the priming techniques was used. (Rosch,1975).the advance information which is called up by the primed category name is most readily applied to good examples.Protot
19、ypical Organisms and ObjectsThe categories are formed around prototypes, which function as cognitive reference points.Categorization involves different degrees of typicality. nDraw some shapes (3sets) on the blackboardnSquares and the other good forms are also prime candidates for natural prototypes
20、 in the domain of geometrical shapes, similar to the focal colours in colour space.nNatural prototype is associated with a name and also judged best example, no matter whether it is presented in a natural category or as a marginal realization of the principle underlying one of the other sets. Protot
21、ypical Shapes Exercise nDraw pictures of prototypical examples and of objects on the borderline between the categories BOTTLE, GLASS, VASE AND BOWL.nThe psychological processes of the categorization nRoschs experiments nRoschs findingsnPrototype The psychological background of focal coloursnThe cate
22、gorizaiton of natural phenomena is involved in the following processes:n1.Selection of simuli (attract our attention)n2.Identification and classificationn3.Naming nRosch found out focal colour were rooted in language or in pre-linguistic cognition(前语言的认知)and focal colours are proved to be prominent
23、in the cognitive processes involved in categorization.The psychological processes of categorizationnBased on the result of Roschs experiment, Rosch replaced Berlin and Kays focus with prototype. The term was borrowed from earlier research into pattern recognition of such stimuli as dot patterns, pol
24、ygons多边形 and schematic faces .nprototype stood for artificially created best examplenThe termprototype made it much easier to extend the notion of foci beyond colour categories ,e.g into the domains of shapes, organisms and objects.Prototype nRoschs first experiment: to test the arousal of attention
25、nThe second experiment: a colour-matching masknThe recognition taskRoschs experimentsnFocal colours are perceptually more salinet than non-focal colours. nFocal colours are more accurately remembered in short-term memory and more easily retained in long-term memory.nThe names of focal colours are mo
26、re rapidly produced in colour-naming tasks and are acquired earlier by children.Roschs FindingsnBerlin and Kays experimentnBasic colour terms (基本颜色)nBerlin and Kays findings nExercise Focal ColoursnWorked with so-called Munsell colour chips nThree dimensions(属性): hue(色调), brightness(亮度) and saturati
27、on(饱和度)nTest how speakers of the 20 selected languages categorized colours. nProvide the criteria for basic colour terms. Berlin and Kays experimentnThe terms should consist of just one word of native origin( as opposed to greenish-blue and turquoise( 绿松石)nTheir application should not be restricted
28、to a narrow class of objects (as opposed,e.g., to English and German blond)nThe words should come to mind readily and should be familiar to all or at least to most speakers of a language.Basic colour termsnIn categorizing colours people rely on certain points (foci) in the colour space for orientati
29、on.nFocal colours are not only shared by the speakers of one and the same language but they are also very consistent across different languages.nColour categorization is anchored in focal colours.nThe boundaries of colour categories vary between languages and speakers. Berlin and Kays findingsnList
30、basic colour terms in Chinese by checking which colour terms consist of only one short word and are freely applicable to different kinds of objects and organisms.nDescibe the colour of sweaters, T-shirts,etc. using basic colour terms as points of reference.Exercise nClassification nCategorization an
31、d Cognitive categorization nThe principles guiding the mental process of categorization CategorizationnThe world consists of an infinite variety of objects with different substances, shapes and colours. How do we classify the variety of objects? For example,norganisms and objects nOther types of ent
32、ities (parts of organism, landscape names and words of weather phenomena)nPhysical properties (temperature , colours) Classification nEasy to identify, classify and namenThey are clearly delimited objects nnot easy to identify, classify and namen nThe boundaries of these entities are vague. nAll of
33、them uninterrupted scales extend between two extremesnThe temperature scale and the colour continuum do not provide natural divisionsnThe mental process of classification is commonly called categorization.nThe classification of temperature and colours can be conceived as a mental processnThe product
34、 of categorization is cognitive categories. Categorization and Cognitive categorization nTwo explanationsnOne explanation: colour categogires are totally arbitrary (Brown and Lenneberg 1954; nLenneberg 1967) nA second explantion: the colour continuum is structured by a system of reference points (定位参照点系统)for orientation. (Brent Berlin and Paul Kay (1969)nFocal colours)The principles guiding the mental process of categorization( colour categorization)n Taylor, J. 1989. Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in linguistic Theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press. n石毓智石毓智,1995,评介评介, 第第2期期References