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1、精品文档，仅供学习与交流，如有侵权请联系网站删除Unit1Presenting a SpeechStephen LucasOf all human creations, language may be the most remarkable. Through language we share experiences, formulate values, exchange ideas, transmit knowledge, and sustain culture. Indeed, language is vital to thinking itself. Contrary to popula
2、r belief,language does not simply mirror reality but also helps to create our sense of reality by giving meaning to events.Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works. Words are the tools of a speakers craft. They have special uses, just like the tools of any other profession. As a
3、 speaker, you should be aware of the meanings of words and know how to use language accurately, clearly, vividly, and appropriately.Using language accurately is as vital to a speaker as using numbers accurately is to an accountant. Never use a word unless you are sure of its meaning. If you are not
4、sure, look up the word in a dictionary. As you prepare your speeches, ask yourself constantly, “What do I really want to say? What do I really mean?” Choose words that are precise and accurate.Using language clearly allows listeners to grasp your meaning immediately. You can ensure this by using fam
5、iliar words that are known to the average person and require no specialized background; by choosing concrete words in preference to more abstract ones, and by eliminating verbal clutter.Using language vividly helps bring your speech to life. One way to make your language more vivid is through imager
6、y, or the creation of word pictures. You can develop imagery by using concrete language, simile, and metaphor. Simile is an explicit comparison between things that are essentially different yet have something in common; it always contains the words “like” or “as.” Metaphor is an implicit comparison
7、between things that are different yet have something in common; it does not contain the words “like” or “as.”Another way to make your speeches vivid is by exploiting the rhythm of language. Four devices for creating rhythm are parallelism, repetition, alliteration, and antithesis. Parallelism is the
8、 similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences. Repetition is the use of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences. Alliteration comes from repeating the initial consonant sounds of close or adjoining words. Antithesis
9、is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure.Using language appropriately means adapting to the particular occasion, audience, and topic at hand. It also means developing your own language style instead of trying to copy someone elses. If your language is appropriate in a
10、ll respects, your speech is much more likely to succeed.Good speeches are not composed of hot air and unfounded assertions. They need strong supporting materials to bolster the speakers point of view. In fact, the skillful use of supporting materials often makes the difference between a good speech
11、and a poor one. The three basic types of supporting materials are examples, statistics and testimony.In the course of a speech you may use brief examples specific instances referred to in passing and sometimes you may want to give several brief examples in a row to create a stronger impression. Exte
12、nded examples often called illustrations, narratives, or anecdotes are longer and more detailed. Hypothetical examples describe imaginary situations and can be quite effective for relating ideas to the audience. All three kinds of examples help to clarify ideas, to reinforce ideas, or to personalize
13、 ideas.To be more effective, though, they should be vivid and richly textured. Statistics can be extremely helpful in conveying your message, as long as you use them sparingly and explain them so they are meaningful to your audience. Above all, you should understand your statistics and use them fair
14、ly. Numbers can easily be manipulated and distorted. Make sure that your figures are representative of what they claim to measure, that you use statistical measures correctly, and that you take statistics only from reliable sources.Testimony is especially helpful for student speakers, because they a
15、re seldom recognized as experts on their speech topics. Citing the views of people who are experts is a good way to make your ideas more credible. When you include testimony in a speech, you can either quote someone verbatim or paraphrase their words. As with statistics, there are guidelines for usi
16、ng testimony. Be sure to quote or paraphrase accurately and to cite qualified unbiased sources. If the source is not generally known to your audience, be certain to establish his or her credentials.The impact of a speech is strongly affected by how the speech is delivered. You cannot make a good spe
17、ech without having something to say. But having something to say is not enough. You must also know how to say it. Good delivery does not call attention to itself. It conveys the speakers ideas clearly, interestingly, and without distracting the audience.There are four basic methods of delivering a s
18、peech: reading verbatim from a manuscript, reciting a memorized text, speaking with PowerPoint, and speaking extemporaneously, or impromptu. The last of these speaking extemporaneously is the method you probably will use for classroom speeches and for most speeches outside the classroom. When speaki
19、ng extemporaneously, you will have only a brief set of notes or a speaking outline. Speaking with PowerPoint is widely used now and very effective indeed.Certainly there are other factors you should consider, such as personal appearance, bodily action, gestures, eye contact, volume, pauses and so on
20、. By paying enough attention to what is mentioned above, you may present an effective speech.第一单元如何发表演说斯蒂芬卢卡斯 在人类创造的万物中，语言可能是最卓越的一项创造。通过语言，我们可以分享经验、阐明价值观念、交流思想、传播知识、传承文化。确实，语言对于思想本身至关重要。和流行的信仰不同的是：语言并不是简单地反映事实，而是通过对事件意义的思考来帮助人们感悟现实。 优秀的演说者尊重语言并懂得如何驾驭语言。语言是演说者展示才能的工具，对于他们来说，如同其他职业的工具一样,语言也有特殊的功用。作为一名
21、演说者，你应该意识到话语的意义，并懂得如何准确无误地使用语言，使其表达清楚，趣味横生，恰如其分。如同数字对于会计的重要性一样，准确地使用语言对于演说者至关重要。在没有确切知道一个词语的意思之前，千万不要盲目使用。碰到没有把握的词语，一定要查词典追根究底。当你准备演讲之前，一定要不断地问自己：“我究竟想说些什么？我究竟想表达什么样的意思？”因此，对于一篇演讲稿的用词来说，必须准确无误。如果语言表达清楚无误，听众就能很快抓住你的意思。鉴于此，演说者应该使用那些对于大多数人来说非常熟悉的词语，这些词语不需要任何专业背景就能够理解；演说者应该使用那些表达具体而不是相对抽象的词语；并且千万不要乱堆砌辞藻
22、，哗众取宠。准确生动地使用语言能够使你的演说贴近生活。有一种方法可以使你的语言更加生动形象，那就是通过展开联想或创造语言图示。通过使用表达具体的词语、明喻或者暗喻等手法可以展开想像。明喻是对事物不同之处的比较，不过有些是相同的：它们总是包含“像一样”或者“如同一样”这样的连词。暗喻是一种隐性的比喻，它能够把两个形式不同但是有一些相通之处的事物联系在一起，暗喻不包含“像一样”或者“如同一样”这样的连词。另一种让你的演说生动形象的方法是注重语言的节奏感。有四种修辞格可以让你的语言富有节奏感：排比、重复、头韵和对比。排比是将一组或一系列具有相似结构的词语、短语或者句子排列在一起；重复是在一系列短句或
23、者长句的开头或者结尾使用相同的一句话或者一组词语；头韵是指邻近或者相邻的几个句子中的首个词语的辅音字母相同；对比是将恰当地使用语言是指语言的运用要符合特定的场合、特定的观众和特定的主题。同时，恰当地使用语言还意味着演说者要有自己的语言风格，而不是模仿他人的口吻。如果演说者的语言在各个方面都能够做到恰如其分，那么这篇演说成功的机率就会大大提高。 优秀的演说并不是空穴来风、缺乏论据的决断。演说者必须找到强有力的论据来支持其观点。实际上，熟练地使用论据经常是区别一篇优秀演说词和一篇空洞演说词的关键所在。一般来说，通常有三种论据材料：事例、统计数据和证词。 在演说过程中，你可以使用一些简明扼要的例子比
24、如过去发生的一个很具体的事件有时候，你可以罗列好几个简明的例子，借此增强听众的印象。扩展性的例子描述、叙述或者奇闻轶事通常长一些，但更具体。夸张性的例子描述想像中的情形，这种例子能够将相关的想法有效地传达给听众。这三种例子都能够帮助演说者理清思绪、加强印象或者使演说更加娓娓动听。为了使表达更加富有效果，例子应该生动活泼，丰富多彩。只要演说者对于统计数据用之得当并且加以解释，这些数据将有助于有效地传达信息，听众也能从统计数据中获益匪浅。最重要的是：演说者应该对统计数据了如指掌，并且运用得恰如其分。由于数据很容易操纵和捏造，因此，对于演说者来说，一定要确保图表没有张冠李戴，并且要确保统计方法正确，
25、数据来源可靠。证词对于那些学生演说者来说特别重要，因为他们都不是演讲主题方面的专家，所以引用那些权威的观点对于增加演说者观点的可信度来说是一种好方法。演说者在演讲中引用证词，可以一字不差地引用别人的话，或者对他们的话进行解释说明。和统计数据一样，证词的使用也需要遵循一定的程式。例如，一定要确保引用或者解释别人的话准确无误，并且确保引文来源可靠公正。如果听众对你的引文不太熟悉，请一定要确立引文作者的可信度。演说的方式也会极大影响其质量。如果一篇演说言之无物当然无人喝彩，但是只有内容是远远不够的，你还必须懂得如何演说。良好的演说方式虽然不能增添更多的信息量，但是它能够帮助演说者清晰地表达思想，使演
26、说妙趣横生，让观众全神贯注。演说的表达方式基本上有四种：通读手稿中的段落、复述背诵过的一段文章、幻灯片辅助的演说以及即兴发挥或即席演说。最后一种方法在课堂讲座经常会用到，大部分课外讲座也会采用这种即席演说的方式。当你即席演说时，你只需要准备一小段简短的提要或者一个演讲大纲即可。幻灯片辅助演说的方式现在运用得很广泛，事实证明这种方式也非常有效。当然，还有其他的因素你需要考虑，如个人的外表、肢体语、手势、目光接触、讲话的声调、停顿等。总之，如果你能够留心上述的方法，相信你的演讲一定会妙语连珠，赢得满堂喝彩。Unit2Energy in TransitionThe era of cheap and
27、convenient sources of energy is coming to an end. A transition to more expensive but less polluting sources must now be managed.John P. HoldrenUnderstanding this transition requires a look at the two-sided connection between energy and human well-being. Energy contributes positively to well-being by
28、 providing such consumer services as heating and lighting as well as serving as a necessary input to economic production. But the costs of energy including not only the money and other resources devoted to obtaining and exploiting it but also environmental and sociopolitical impacts detract from wel
29、l-being.For most of human history, the dominant concerns about energy have centered on the benefit side of the energy well-being equation. Inadequacy of energy resources or (more often) of the technologies and organizations for harvesting, converting, and distributing those resources has meant insuf
30、ficient energy benefits and hence inconvenience, deprivation and constraints on growth. The 1970s, then, represented a turning point. After decades of constancy or decline in monetary costs and of relegation of environmental and sociopolitical costs to secondary status energy was seen to be getting
31、costlier in all respects.It began to be plausible that excessive energy costs could pose threats on a par with those of insufficient supply. It also became possible to think that expanding some forms of energy supply could create costs exceeding the benefits.The crucial question at the beginning of
32、the 1990s is whether the trend that began in the 1970s will prove to be temporary or permanent. Is the era of cheap energy really over, or will a combination of new resources, new technology and changing geopolitics bring it back? One key determinant of the answer is the staggering scale ofenergy de
33、mand brought forth by 100 years of unprecedented population growth, coupled with an equally remarkable growth in per capita demand of industrial energy forms.It entailed the use of dirty coal as well as clean; undersea oil as well as terrestrial; deep gas as well as shallow; mediocre hydroelectric s
34、ites as well as good ones; and deforestation as well as sustainable fuelwood harvesting.Except for the huge pool of oil underlying the Middle East, the cheapest oil and gas are already gone. Even if a few more giant oil fields are discovered, they will make little difference against consumption on t
35、odays scale.Oil and gas will have to come increasingly, for most countries, from deeper in the earth and from imports whose reliability and affordability cannot be guaranteed.There are a variety of other energy resources that are more abundant than oil and gas. Coal, solar energy, and fission and fu
36、sion fuels are the most important ones. But they all require elaborate and expensive transformation into electricity or liquid fuels in order to meet societys needs. None has very good prospects for delivering large quantities of electricity at costs comparable to those of the cheap coal-fired and h
37、ydropower plants of the 1960s. It appears, then, that expensive energy is a permanent condition, even without allowing for its environmental costs.The capacity of the environment to absorb the effluents and other impacts of energy technologies is itself a finite resource. The finitude is manifested
38、in two basic types of environmental costs. External costs are those imposed by environmental disruptions on society but not reflected in the monetary accounts of the buyers and sellers of the energy. “Internalized costs” are increases in monetary costs imposed by measures, such as pollution-control
39、devices, aimed at reducing the external costs.Both types of environmental costs have been rising for several reasons. First, the declining quality of fuel deposits and energy-conversion sites to which society must now turn means more material must be moved or processed, bigger facilities must be con
40、structed and longer distances must be traversed. Second, the growing magnitude of effluents from energy systems has led to saturation of the environments capacity to absorb such effluents without disruption. Third, the monetary costs of controlling pollution tend to increase with the percentage of p
41、ollutants removed.Despite these expenditures, the remaining uninternalized environmental costs have been substantial and in many cases are growing. Those of greatest concern are the risk of death or disease as a result of emissions or accidents at energy facilities and the impact of energy supplied
42、on the global ecosystem and on international relations.The impacts of energy technologies on public health and safety are difficult to pin down with much confidence. In the case of air pollution from fossil fuels, in which the dominant threat to public health is thought to be particulates formed fro
43、m sulfur dioxide emissions, a consensus on the number of deaths caused by exposure has proved impossible. Widely differing estimates result from different assumptions about fuel compositions, air pollution control technology, power-plant sitting in relation to population distribution, meteorological
44、 conditions affecting sulfate formation, and, above all, the relation between sulfate concentrations and disease.Large uncertainties also apply to the health and safety impacts of nuclear fission. In this case, differing estimates result in part from differences among sites and reactor types, in par
45、t from uncertainties about emissions from fuel-cycle steps that are not yet fully operational (especially fuel reprocessing and management of uranium-mill tailings) and in part from different assumptions about the effects of exposure to low-dose radiation. The biggest uncertainties, however, relate
46、to the probabilities and consequences of large accidents at reactors, at reprocessing plants and in the transport of wastes.Altogether, the ranges of estimated hazards to public health from both coal-fired and nuclear-power plants are so wide as to extend from negligible to substantial in comparison
47、 with other risks to the population. There is little basis, in these ranges, for preferring one of these energy sources over the other. For both, the very size of the uncertainty is itself a significant liability.Often neglected, but no less important, is the public health menace from traditional fu
48、els widely used for cooking and water heating in the developing world. Perhaps 80 percent of global exposure to particulate air pollution occurs indoors in developing countries, where the smoke from primitive stoves is heavily laden with dangerous hydrocarbons. A disproportionate share of this burde
49、n is borne, moreover, by women (who do the cooking) and small children (who indoors with their mothers).First, civilization depends heavily on services provided by ecological and geophysical processes such as building and fertilizing soil, regulating water supply, controlling pests and pathogens, and maintaining a tolerable climate; yet it lacks the knowledge and the resources to replace natures services with technology