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1、第八章抽象与具体(Abstract vs Concrete) 英语的名词化往往导致表达的抽象化。GMYoung 曾指出， “ an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will ， in the end， detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done and insensibly induce a habit of abst
2、raction, generalization and vagueness”英语的抽象表达法(method of abstract diction) 主要见于大量使用抽象名词。这类名词涵义概括，指称笼统，覆盖面广，往往有一种“ 虚” 、“ 泛” 、“ 暗” 、“ 曲” 、“ 隐” 的“ 魅力 ” ，因而便于用来表达复杂的思想和微妙的情绪。如：1)The signs of the times point to the necessity of the modification of the system of administration ( “ Times ” )( =It is becomi
3、ng clear that the administrative system must be，modified) 管理体制需要改革，这已越来越清楚了。2)No year passes now without evidence of the truth of the statement that the work of government is becoming increasingly difficult( “ Spectator” )(=Every year shows again how true it is that)行政管理工作已变得越来越困难了，每年都证明确实如此。3)There
4、 seems to have been an absence of attempt at conciliation between rival sects ( “ Daily Telegraph” )( =The sects seem never even to have tried mutual conciliation) 对立的派别似乎从来就没有试图去谋求和解。抽象表达法在英语里使用得相当普遍，尤其常用于社会科学论著、官方文章、 报刊评论、法律文书、商业信件等文体。这种表达法得以流行，还有以下几个主要原因：一、抽象思维被认为是一种高级思维(superior mind)，是文明人的一种象征(
5、mark of civilized man) 随着科学技术的发达和文明社会的进步，原有的感性表达方式已不足以表达复杂的理性概念，因而需要借助于抽象、概括的方法。这正如H Jacobi 所说的： ,abstract methods of diction were more and more needed as the sphere of ideas to be expressed became narrower and narrower”此外，许多作者为了显耀其思想深奥而故弄玄虚、追随时尚，也嗜好抽象表达法。例如：1)The absence of intelligence is an indic
6、ation of satisfactory developments(=No news is good news) 没有消息即表明有令人满意的进展。2)Was this the realization of an anticipated liability?(=Did you expect you would have to do this?) 你有没有预料到你必需做这件事? 3)The actual date of the completion of the purchase should coincide with the availability of the new facilitie
7、s (=The purchase should not be completed until the new facilities are available) 必须等到有了这些新设备，才能购买这批货。4)A high degree of carelessness, pre-operative and post-operative, on the part of some of the hospital staff， took place (=Some of the hospital staff were very careless both before and after the oper
8、ation) 医院某些医护人员在手术前后都非常粗心。5)The lack of figures may prove to be an obstacle to the efficiency of the whole of the proposed statistical content of the exercise(=Lack of figures may make it difficult to produce accurate statistics) 缺乏数据会使准确的统计变得很困难。二、抽象词语意义模糊，便于掩饰作者含混(cloudy) 或真实的思想，以迎合其某种表达的需要，因而也得以流
9、行。 E Gowers 指出，“Unfortunately the very vagueness of abstract words is one of the reasons for their popularity To express one?s thoughts accurately is hard work， and to be precise is sometimes dangerousWe are tempted to prefer the safer obscurity of the abstract It is the greatest vice of present-day
10、 writing ”这种不良的文风常常表现在过分使用涵义抽象、内容虚泛、 语气庄严的大字眼(pompous words) ，有时简直到了装腔作势、令人难以捉摸的地步：Whereas the micro-economic neo-classical theory of distribution was based on a postulate of rationality suited to their static analysis and institutional assumptions， we are no longer justified in accepting this basis
11、 and are set the problem of discovering the Value premises suited to the expectational analysis and the institutional nature of modern business The neo-classical postulate of rationality and the concept of the entrepreneur as the profit maximizing individual，should，I think ，be replaced by a sociolog
12、ical analysis of the goals of the firm in relation to its nature as an organization within the socio-political system这段文字是英国人写的，说的是有关商业人士如何作出决策；下段文字则出自美国人之笔，讲的是有关检验为军用飞行器或宇宙飞船特制的食品：Strangeness of samples has been shown to lead to relative rejection of products in the comparative absence of clues to
13、a frame of reference within which judgment may take placeVariation in clues selected by judges as a basis for evaluation lead to greater inter-judge disagreement Addition of a functional(utilitarian)basis for judgment tends to reduce relative importance of product physical characteristics as a basis
14、 for judgmentIn the absence of any judgmental frame of reference reduction in the number of product physical attributes apparent to the judge appears to reduce operation of bases for rejection and increase homogeneity of judgment between subjects；inter-sample discrimination is also reduced 滥用抽象词语在公文
15、里已是司空见惯。加拿大国防部根据某些常用虚泛词语的搭配习惯，发明了一个“ 公式化套语生成表” ，称之为 “Bussphrase Generator ”：Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 0.integrated 0. management 0. options 1.overall 1. organizational 1. flexibility 2.systematized 2. monitored 2. capability 3.parallel 3. reciprocal 3. mobility 4.functional 4. digital 4. programmin
16、g 5.responsive 5. logistical 5. concept 6.optional 6. transitional 6.time-phase 7.synchronized 7. incremental 7.projection patible 8. third-generation 8. hardware 9.balanced 9. policy 9. contingency 此表的用法很简单：只要从每栏内任取一词，按其顺序便可组成一个公式化的套语，如405，即 functional management concept这些套语，外行人听起来以为很重要，但实际上并无多大意义。
17、作者用令人困惑的抽象词语(puzzling abstraction) 把所要表达的意思隐蔽起来，读者只能 “ 透过朦胧的玻璃” 看出其大概的轮廓。这种模糊的 “ 行话 ” 其实是虚泛的空话，但却在政府、商业或技术等部门里甚为盛行，并成了时髦的词语(vogue terms)。三、英语有丰富的词义虚化手段，这就大大方便了抽象表达法的使用。这些手段主要有：1用虚化词缀构词。前缀和后缀都可以使词义虚化，其中以后缀数量最多、分布最广。如：前缀： pan-泛：panorama，inter-相互：interplay ， micro- 微：micro-cosm ， pro-先：prodrome其他如： tra
18、ns-跨， crypt-隐性， circum-绕， contra-相反， intra-内， multi- 多， retro-后， ultra-超后缀：一 ness表示性质、状态、 程度：oneness， disinterestedness， thoughtfulness， uptodateness，carelessness 一 tion 表示动作、 状态、结果：agitation， occupation， realization， decoration， examination ，internationalization -ity 表示性质、 状态、程度：calamity， purity ，
19、alkalinity ， modernity ， liberality ， formality ，humanity ，gravity ism 表示主义、 学说、信仰、行为、行动、状态、特征、特性、病态： Marxism ， atomism，criticism ，vandalism，barbarism， colloquialism ，alcoholism ，fatalism sion 表示行为、 状态、性质、结果：confusion， division ， conversion， precision， decision，declension，conclusion ence表示动作、性质、状态：e
20、mergence， reference， despondence ， resilience， dependence ，existence ment 表示行为的结果、手段、工具、过程、状态、程度：entanglement，increment，entertainment，encampment, astonishment，advertisement，development ance表示性质、 状况、行动、过程、总量、程度； perseverance， vigilance ，attendance，conductance，continuance ship 表示情况、状态、性质、身份、职业、技巧、技能；h
21、ardship，friendship ，apprenticeship，marksmanship hood 表示身份、资格、性质、状态；childhood，priesthood，falsehood，likelihood ，manhood，bachelorhood ing 表示动作或动作的过程、结果、产物、对象、与某一事物有关的动作、与某一动作或概念有关的事物等：swimming ，engraving， building ，accounting，sewing， coloring ，scaffolding, offing, banking, bearing 英语大量的抽象名词源于拉丁语(Latina
22、te abstracts) oJespersen指出，“Latin loan -words are extremely numerous and important in the English languageAll educated people are well acquainted with those innumerable scientific ，technical，and other Latin words which have been adopted during the last five centuries and which have stamped the Engli
23、sh vocabulary in so peculiar a way”拉丁词 (如以一 tion，一 ty，一 ment，一 ence等结尾的名词)音节多，词义泛，在英语里到处可见。以下两例引自美国的一家教育杂志，其抽象名词可谓泛滥成灾(abstractitis)：1)Merely to enumerate these five outstanding characteristics of an urban community ，namely ， chaotic stimulation ， mechanization ， impersonalization ， commercializatio
24、n ， and complexity of organization ，suggests many implications for the city education 2)For most Americans ，irrespective of party affiliation and predisposition，isolationism is defunct and participation and cooperation commonsensed and essential, in international relations2、用介词表达比较虚泛的意义。介词本来就是虚词，在英语
25、里十分活跃。介词可以构成各式各样的短语或成语，其意义有时虚泛得难以捉摸，如：1)be in at：If any mischief was going forward, Peter was sure to be in at it. 只要有什么恶作剧，总免不了有彼得在内。2)be in for ：I understand he?s i n for a job in the company 我知道他在申请公司的一个职位。3)be in for it ：When your mother sees your torn trousers, you ?ll be in for it. 要是你妈妈看到你的裤子
26、撕破了，你准得吃苦头。4)in on：If there?s any profit to be got out of the deal , I?m going to be on it. 如果这次买卖可以赚到钱，我打算凑一份。5)have it in for somebody Bob has it in for George because George told the teacher that Bob cheated in the exam因为乔治向老师报告鲍勃考试作弊，鲍勃就对乔治怀恨在心。一般说来， 英语词义内涵比较广泛，词的用法比较灵活，一词多义、一词多用的现象非常普遍，这也有助于表达比
27、较概括、笼统的意义。如service 一词，可以作服务、上菜、服务机构、部门人员、军种、设施、维修、发球、送达、仪式等多种解释; power 一词，可以作能力、体力、动力、权力、势力、电力、强国、有权力的人、有影响的机构等多种解释。总之，英语有过分使用抽象表达法的倾向。不少文体学家提倡具体与抽象相结合的选词法，即 “a mixture of long abstract Latin words with short concrete Anglo -Saxon words” ，也就是Aristotle 早在 2300 年前就主张的“ mixed diction”：The aim of style
28、is to be clear but distinguishedFor clarity ，we need common，current words，but，used alone，these are commonplace， and as ephemeral as everyday talk For distinction we need words not heard every minute ，unusual words，large words，foreign words ，metaphors；but，used alone，these become bogs，vapors，or at wor
29、st，gibberishWhat we need is a diction that weds the popular with the dignified ，the clear current with the sedgy margins of1anguage and thought与英语相比， 汉语用词倾向于具体，常常以实的形式表达虚的概念，以具体的形象表达抽象的内容。 这主要是因为汉语缺乏象英语那样的词缀虚化手段。汉语没有形态变化，形式相同的词， 可以是名词， 也可以是动词，还可以是形容词或其他词。名词从形式上很难辨别出“ 具体 ” 或“ 抽象 ” 。王力曾经指出：我们所谓名词，和英语所
30、谓noun，范围广狭稍有不同。我们的名词，就普通说，除了哲学上的名词之外，只能指称具体的东西。而且可以说是五官所能感触的。英文里从形容词形成的抽象名词， 如 kindness，wisdom ， humility ， youth， 从动词形成的抽象名词，如 invitation ，movement，choice，assistance，arrival ，discovery 等，中国字典里可以说是没有一个词和它们相当的。 在中国词的形式上，咱们辨别不出抽象名词的特征；它们是和形容词或动词完全同形的。我们在上文声明过，我们不赞成从职务上分别词类，因此我们就不能从“我喜欢他的聪明” 一类的句子里， 去证
31、明 “聪明” 是一个抽象名词，也不能从 “他费了长时间的选择”一类的句子里， 去证明“选择” 是一个抽象名词。 我们如果从概念上去辨别，中国语里的 “聪明”断然是一个形容词，因为它表示一种德性；“选择”断然是一个动词，因为它表示一种行为。 ,“ 政府 ” ，“ 议会 ” ， “ 团体 ” ，“ 政治 ” ，“ 经济 ” 一类的名词，它们所指称的东西是五官所不能感触的， 然而大家都该承认，它们所指称的东西并不因此减少其具体性。它们实际上包含着许多极端具体的东西，咱们不能否认它们也是名词。剩下来，只有哲学上的名词如“ 道”“ 德”“ 品”“ 性” 等，才是真正抽象的。如果说中国有抽象名词的话，就只
32、有这极少数的几个了。现代汉语的一些抽象词尾(如“ 性” 、“ 化” 、“ 度” 、“ 品” 、“ 主义 ” 等)大多来自外语。例如，“ 性” 译自英语的 -ty，-ness，-ce 等(necessity 必要性、 correctness正确性、 dependence依赖性 )，“ 化” 译自英语的 -ization ，-tion 等 (modernization 现代化， abstraction 抽象化 )，“ 度 ” 略等于英语的 -th，-ty(1ength 长度， intensity 强度 )，“ 主义 ” 译自英语的 -ism，-ness 等(patriotism 爱国主义，slav
33、ishness 奴隶主义 )， “ 品” 则相当于英语的某些含义较广的名词，如 commodity 商品，narcotics 毒品， daily necessities 日用品。现代汉语虽然可以从外文中引进这类抽象的记号，但其应用的范围仍然相当有限，如 Americanism 就不能译为 “ 美国主义 ” ， 而应译为具体的词，如美国用语、美国发音、美国腔、美国习俗、美国方式、对美国的信仰或效忠等；realization也不能译为 “ 实现化 ” ， 而应译为具体的动词或名词，如“ 实现 ” 、“ 认识 ” 、“ 认清 ” 、“ 了解 ” 、“ 体会” 、“ 领悟 ” 、“ 变卖 ” 、 “换
34、取”等。汉语的抽象名词虽然没有英语那么多，但自古以来，表达抽象意义的词语仍不乏其例，如旧时流行的蒙学课本三字经，就有不少抽象名词：“ 性相近，习相远。?“教五子，名俱扬。 ” “ 养不教，父之过。” “ 教不严，师之惰。” “ 人不学，不知义。” “ 曰仁义，礼智信，此五常，不容紊。 ” “ 曰喜怒，曰哀惧，爱恶欲，七情具。” 其中的抽象名词，都不加虚化词缀。由于汉语缺乏象英语那样的虚化手段，因而常常用比较具体的方式来表达抽象的意义。Rudolf Flesch 在“ The Art of Plain Talk”一书中对汉语用词具体(concrete)、表达清晰 (clear)、语言形象 (pi
35、cturesque) 大加赞扬，并以此来批评英语那种措辞抽象(abstract)、含义晦涩(obscure)、词句冗长 (1ong-winded) 的不良文风。他曾作了如下生动的比较：Chinese does more to you than just simplify your constructionsIt simplifies your ideas In other languages， the affixes are a splendid means of getting away from reality into vague generalities and abstraction
36、s For instance， in English you have the simple word sign ， meaning ,a mark.” ，Now you add an affix to that word and you get signify，“ to make a mark” Next you add another affix ， and you arrive at significant ， “ making a mark ” Now you add a prefix for a change ，and， you have insignificant ， ,makin
37、g no mark .” Finally you add another suffix ， and you come out with insignificance. ,the making of no mark.” What did you do? You took a simple noun，and made it successively into a verb ， an adjective，another adjective，and again a n6un. You have added no meaning but just four empty syllables Now you
38、 can be serious and philosophic and talk about the insignificance of man A Chinese would say something about Man no mark So，while you give in to the temptations of English affixes and fill your talk with masses of empty syllables and words，he keeps his feet on the ground and says everything in the m
39、ost concrete，specific wordsHe has to; there are no other words in Chinese If you think ，however，that Chinese has no way of expressing abstract ideas，you are wrong Remember the Chinese were talking and writing about religion and philosophy long before our own civilization started If they had no exact
40、 word for an abstraction ，they used the concrete word，or words，that came nearest to the ideaSo，naturally ，instead of using words like institutionalization or anti-progressivism，as our thinkers do，they formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors，similes，and allegories，in short，by every known de
41、vice for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else R Flesch的这段话确实道出了汉语的一个重要特色：“ 实” 、“ 明” 、“ 直” 、“ 显” 、“ 形 ” 、“ 象” 的表达法， 即措辞具体、 涵义明确， 叙述直接， 常常借助于比喻和形象，因而比较平易、朴实 (down-to-earth style) 。具体说来，汉语往往采用如下的手段来表达英语的抽象词义：一、 用动词取代抽象名词。英语大量的行为抽象名词(action-nouns) 表示行为或动作意义，由这类名词构成的短语往往相当于主谓结构或动宾结构。汉
42、语若用相应的名词表达，往往显得不自然、 不通顺。 在英汉转换中， 汉语可充分利用其动词优势，以动代静， 以实代虚。 如：1)I marveled at the relentless determination of the rain (NRigg) 雨无情地下个不停，我感到惊异。2)He had surfaced with less visibility in the policy decisions(B Barnhart) 在决策过程中，他已经不那么抛头露面了。3)High b1ood pressure is a contraindication for this drug 高血压患者忌服此
43、药。4)These problems defy easy classification 这些问题难以归类。5)In handling the materials of history，each act of selection is also an act of judgment ，and therefore the charge of bias is never completely answerable 在处理历史资料时，每选一项资料就是作出一种判断，因此不能说完全没有偏见。6)The basilica is a conglomeration of contrary styles and
44、periods (CLucas) 这座王宫把不同时期的不同建筑风格融为一体。7)Laser is one of the most sensational developments in recent years， because of its applicability to many fields of science and its adaptability to practical uses激光可以应用于许多科学领域，又适合于各种实际用途。因此成了近年来轰动一时的科学成就之一。二、用范畴词使抽象概念具体化。范畴词(category words) 用来表示行为、现象、属性等概念所属的范畴，
45、是汉语常用的特指手段。如：1)We have winked at these irregularities too long. 我们对这些越轨行为宽容得太久了。2)He was described as impressed by Deng?s flexibility 据说他对邓的灵活态度印象很深。3)What they wanted most was an end of uncertainties. 那时他们最渴望的就是结束这摇摆不定的局面。4)He discussed greatness and excellence. 他探讨了伟大和杰出的涵义。5)The sight of his nati
46、ve place called back his childhood. 见到自己的故乡，他想起了童年的情景。6)Both we and the Chinese approached that first opening toward each other with caution, uncertainty, even trepidation. (R Nixon ：The Real War) 我们和中国人双方都是怀着谨慎、不安甚至是惶恐的心情来相互探讨这初次的接触的。7)He spoke with firmness, but his face was very sad and his eyes
47、at times were dim 他讲话时，态度坚定，但面带愁容，时而眼神暗谈。8)This is the day for our two peoples to rise to the heights of greatness which can bund a new and a better world(RNixon) 现在该是我们两国人民为缔造一个崭新的、更加美好的世界而攀登这一伟大境界高峰的时候了。其他例子如：complexity 复杂性， relativity 相对论， display 显示器， corrosive 腐蚀剂，jealousy 嫉妒心 (理 )，arrogance 傲慢
48、态度， eccentricity 古怪行为， lightheartedness 轻松愉快的心情，lithonephrotomy 肾结石切除术，gravity separation 重力选矿法，等等。三、用具体的词语阐释抽象的词义。英语抽象词的涵义比较笼统、概括、虚泛，在汉语里往往找不到对应的词来表达，这时常常要借助具体的词语来解释其抽象的词义，正如 Peter Newmark 所说的： “ As a last resort ，explanation is the translation ” 例如：1)No country should claim infallibility. ( “ The
49、Sino-USJoint Communiqu”)任何国家都不应自称一贯正确。2)The stars twinkled in transparent clarity. 星星在清澈的晴空中闪烁。3)She wondered whether her outspokenness might be a liability to Franklin( “ The Glory and the Dream”)她怀疑自己那么心直口快，是否会成为弗兰克林的包袱。4)This rambling propensity strengthened with years (Washington Irving) 岁月增添，游兴
50、更浓。5)In America ， Wang computers have become a fixture in offices throughout the country(RReagan) 在美国，王安公司的电子计算机已成为各地办公室的必备之物。6)On March 1 ，Nixon internationalized his approach to China 3 月 1 日，尼克松把他对中国问题的看法扩大到国际范围里了。7)To the Chinese， theirs was not a civilization ， but the civilization (R Nixon ： T