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1、3.1 Morphology - DefinitionlMorphology is the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.lKey points: - words - internal structure e.g. repeat, reunite, reform - rules e.g. repeat - *peatrelMorpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in which there is an arbitrar
2、y union of sound and meaning, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether lexical or grammatical.l最小的音义结合体。lQuestion: Are these morphemes?lExamples: nice, -ist, pre-, -slA morpheme is a linguistic abstraction and a concept which is usually marked ou
3、t with curly brackets .3.2 Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaninglMorpheme needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. These forms are called morphs (语素形式).le.g. The morpheme rose is phonologically represented by /ruz/ and orthographically by “rose”.3.2 MorphemeMorph(语素形式语素
4、形式)lSome morphemes have a single form in all contexts. But in other cases, morphemes may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. lThose morphs that represent the same morpheme are called the allomorphs of the same morpheme.lAn allomorph (语素变体/词素变体) is a morphological variant of morpheme, and the re
5、lation between allomorph and morpheme is a matter of realization.3.2 MorphemeAllomorph (语素变体语素变体)lThere are three features of the allomorphs of one morpheme:la. All the allomorphs should have common meaning;lb. All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution;lc. Allomorphs which share the
6、 common meaning should occur in parallel formation.3.2 MorphemeAllomorph (语素变体语素变体)3.3 Types of Morphemesfree morpheme (free root morphemes)bound morphemebound rootaffixInflectional morphemederivational morphememorpheme3.3 Types of Morphemesl1. Free morpheme and bound morphemelFree morpheme (自由语素):
7、those morphemes may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves.lBound morpheme (粘着语素): those morphemes cannot occur alone, but must appear with at least another morpheme.3.3 Types of Morphemesl2 Root, affix and stemlRoot (词根) is the base form of a word that cannot be further a
8、nalyzed without destroying its meaning.lAffix (词缀) is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.lStem (词干) is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3.3
9、 Types of Morphemesl3. Inflectional morpheme and derivational morphemelInflectional morphemes (屈折语素)are not used to produce new words in the English language, but rather to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word.lDerivational morphemes (派生语素)are used to make new words in the language
10、 and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category for the stem.3.4 Morphemic analysis (语素分析语素分析)lIn cases where a word consists of more than one morpheme, we shall try to analyze how the word is formed, and how the morphemes are related to each other.lThe analysis of the relation
11、ships between the morphemes in a word is referred to as morphemic analysis.3.4 Morphemic analysis (语素分析语素分析)lExercise: Can you analyze the morphemes in “replacements” , “untruly” and “unmanly”?lreplacements = re + place + ment + sluntruly = un + true + lylunmanly = un + man + lylIn this way, we anal
12、yze the linear order, that is the horizontal order of the morphemes.lQuestion: Which affix adds to the root first, which the second, the third?lWe need to analyze the hierarchical order of morphemes.Immediate Constituent Analysis lMethod: Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis) (直接成分分析法)lBy IC A
13、nalysis, the morphemes of a word are divided into two groups, then each of them is divided into sub-groups, and so on, until it reaches the irreducible constituents.l e.g. replacementsl replacement sl l replace ment - immediate constituents of the form on one level abovel re place - ultimate constit
14、uentsImmediate Constituent Analysis lQuestion: How to analyze “untruly” and “unmanly?l untruly unmanlyl untrue ly un manlyl un true man lylIC Analysis of morphemes is not arbitrary. It is governed by morphological rules, which determine how morphemes are combined into new words.3.5 Word FormationlTy
15、pes of word formationlDerivation lCompoundingWord Formationl1. Derivation is the process by which a new word is built from a stem, usually through the addition of an affix. lThe derived word may have a different meaning than the original word, and may even be in a different grammatical category than
16、 the underived word.l1) Prefixation: usually does not change the word class.lThe basic rules:Word FormationlHowever, there are exceptions.lbe: befriend (be+ N V), belittle (be + ADJ V)lem/en: embody (em + N V), ensure (en + ADJ V)la: asleep (a + N ADJ)lun: unearth (un + N V)lpost: postwar (post + N
17、ADJ)Word Formationl2) Suffixation: the suffixes may add to the meaning.RulesExamplesN + suffix Vbeautify, computerize, hyphenateN + suffix ADJhairy, foolish, poisonousN + suffix ADVclockwise, eastwardV + suffix Nsimplification, movement, refusal, traineeV + suffix ADJteachable, dependent, active, ex
18、citedADJ + suffix Nhappiness, acceptability, nationalism, tenthADJ + suffix Vsimplify, modernize, quickenADJ + suffix ADVmadly, openlyExceptions: N + suffix (-hood, -dom, -ism, etc.) N.Word Formationl2. Compounding is a way of forming new lexical items involving the combination of two or more roots.
19、lIn English, most compounds are two-word ones, but it can be a three-word one like hit-and-run or even a ten-word compounding adjective, lsuch as: the jumping-on-a-chair-at-the-sight-of-a-mouse eralIn most of the compounds, the morphemes retain their lexical meanings, but there are exceptions: le.g.
20、 a highballlWhiskey with icy waterWord FormationNoun CompoundN + N Nworkman wonderlandADJ + N Nbackground blackbirdV + N Ndriveway cutthroatN + V Nhaircut steamcleanN + P Npasser-by looker-onP + N NafterthoughtV + ADV NgivebackAdjective CompoundADJ + N ADJhigh-grade good-willADJ + ADJ ADJbittersweet
21、 red-hotADV + ADJ ADJoverripe ever-presentN + ADJ ADJbrand-new homesickN + Ving ADJman-eating heartbreakingN + Ved ADJheartfeltWord FormationVerb CompoundV + V Vsleepwalk jumpstartN + V Vbrainwash spoon-feedADJ + V Vdry-clean hard-boilADV + V Vuphold overlookWord FormationlOther typesl3. Backformati
22、on (逆序构词法)is a process of de-affixation by “subtracting” part of the old word that is mistaken for an affix.le.g. la. Backformation from nouns:l beggar beg donation donatelb. Backformation from adjectives:l gloomy gloom cosy coselc. Backformation from words ending with ing:l sidling sidle air-condit
23、ioning air-conditionWord Formationl4. Conversion (转化构词法)means to changing from one word class to another, with little or no phonological change.le.g. walk (V N) engineer (N V) dirty (Adj V)lSometimes, the same form can be used for several functions.le.g. 1. He is the last one to leave.l 2. The film
24、lasted two hours.l 3. The food can only last us three days.l 4. Who laughs last laughs best.l 5. The last to leave the room should turn off the light. Word Formationl5. Abbreviation/clipping(缩写构词法), is the process of shortening, or clipping a longer word or phrase.lThree types:la. Front clipping: re
25、moving the beginning of the wordl phone (telephone)l plane (airplane)lb. Back clipping: deleting the end of the wordl exam (examination) l ad (advertisement)lc. Front-back clipping: discarding both beginning & end of the wordl flu (influenza)l fridge (refrigerator)Word Formationl6. Blending (混成构词法)i
26、s to create a word by combining parts of two already existing words.le.g. smog (smoke + fog) brunch (breakfast + lunch)l7. Initialism (词首字母缩略构词法)is to combine pronunciation of the initial letters of the composite names.le.g. FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)l NBA (National Basketball Association
27、)l8. Acronyms (词首字母缩略构词法) come out when the combined initial letters follow the pronunciation patterns of English and the sequence can be pronounced as the spelling indicates as one word.le.g. UNESCO NATO TOEFLWord Formationl9. Loans/Borrowings (借词): to borrow words from other languages.le.g. cancer
28、 (from Latin) government (from French)l pajamas (from Japanese) wok (from Chinese)l10. Coinage (新造词语): Many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, which later become generic names.le.g. Kodak nylonComplementarylContrast between Chinese and Engl
29、ish word formation汉语偏旁部首Vs英语黏着词素 汉汉 语语 英英 语语 单字偏旁部首 单词黏着词素 人人 心心 水水 金金 亻亻 忄忄 氵氵 钅钅 man heart water metal anthrop- -cord hydro- -ium形声与会意Vs合成与派生l 汉语汉语l1. 形声法形声法l 形符形符 + 声符声符l 义类义类 + 读音读音l 例：湖、铀例：湖、铀l2. 会意法会意法l 例：歪、尘、众、孬例：歪、尘、众、孬l 英语英语l1. 合成：词合成：词+词词+l keyboard l warmheartedl2. 派生：前缀派生：前缀+词根词根+ 后缀后缀lu
30、nfriendly, receivelhydrographExercise The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning. Sue moves in high-society circles in London. A traffic warden asked John to move his car. The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd. The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.Thanks