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1、道路工程毕业设计外文翻译-高速公路设计与施工 原文 Highway Design and Construction: The Innovation Challenge Author: Robert E. Skinner Jr. Innovations and advances in research are changing the way highways are built in America. The Egyptians were pouring concrete in 2500 BC, and the Romans used it to construct the Pantheon
2、and the Colosseum. By the mid-1800s, Europeans were building bridges with concrete, and the first “modern” concrete highway pavements appeared in the latter part of the 19th century. Naturally occurring asphalts, which have been used for waterproofing for thousands of years, came into common use in
3、road construction in the 1800s. The first iron bridge was constructed in 1774, but by the end of the 19th century steel had largely replaced iron in bridge construction. These materialsconcrete, asphalt, and steelare now the mainstays of highway and bridge construction throughout the world, as well
4、as of most types of public works infrastructure. Concrete and steel, the most versatile of these materials, are used for bridges and other highway structures; concrete and asphalt are used for roadway pavements. Everyone is familiar with concrete, asphalt, and steel, and some of us have worked with
5、them, perhaps on home improvement projects. This familiarity, coupled with the long history of their many uses, has led many otherwise technically savvy people to believe that these materials are well understood, that their performance can be easily and reliably predicted, and that the technical cha
6、llenges in using them for highways were overcome long ago. However, such notions are largely incorrect and misleading. For example, consider concrete, which is a mixture of portland cement, sand, aggregate (gravel or crushed stone), and water. Its performance characteristics are determined by the pr
7、oportions and characteristics of the components, as well as by how it is mixed and formed. The underlying chemical reactions of concrete are surprisingly complex, not completely understood, and vary with the type of stone. Steel may be added for tensile strength (reinforced concrete), and a variety
8、of additives have been identified to improve the workability and performance of concrete in particular applications and conditions. Damage and deterioration to concrete can result from excessive loadings and environmental conditions, such as freeze-thaw cycles and chemical reactions with salts used
9、for deicing. _ Many factors contribute to the urgent need for innovation in highway construction. _ Concrete is the most heavily used substance in the world after water (Sedgwick, 1991). Worldwide, concrete construction annually consumes about 1.6 billion tons of cement, 10 billion tons of sand and
10、crushed stone, and 1 billion tons of water (M.S. Kahn, 2022). Given transportation costs, there is a huge financial incentive to using local sources of stone, even if the properties of that stone are less than ideal. Thus concrete is not a homogenous material. In truth, an unlimited number of combin
11、ations and permutations are possible. Much the same can be said of asphalttechnically, asphaltic concretewhich is also a mixture of aggregate (gravel or crushed stone), sand, and cement (asphalt binder); economics promote the use of locally available materials; and the underlying chemistry is not we
12、ll understood. The characteristics of asphalt binder, for instance, vary depending on the source of crude oil from which it is derived. The metallurgy of steel is probably better understood than the chemistry of either asphalt or concrete, but it too is a mixture with virtually limitless combination
13、s. Strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, and weldability are some of the performance characteristics that vary with the type of steel alloy used and the intended applications. As uses evolve and economic conditions change, we have a continuing need for a more sophisticated understanding of thes
14、e common materials. Even though they are “mature” products, there is still room for significant incremental improvements in their performance. Because fundamental knowledge is still wanting, there is also considerable potential for breakthroughs in their performance. Factors That Affect Highway Cons
15、truction All other things being equal, stronger, longer lasting, less costly highway materials are desirable and, given the quantities involved, there are plenty of incentives for innovation. In highway transportation, however, all other things are not equal. A number of other factors contribute to
16、the urgent and continuing need for innovation. First, traffic volume and loadings continue to increase. Every day the U.S. highway network carries more traffic, including heavy trucks that were unimagined when the system was originally conceived and constructed. The 47,000-mile interstate highway sy
17、stem today carries more traffic than the entire U.S. highway system carried in 1956 when the interstates were laid out. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) estimates that in metropolitan areas the annual cost of traffic congestion for businesses and citizens is nearly $170 billion (PB Consul
18、t, Inc., 2022). On rural interstates, overall traffic more than doubled between 1970 and 2022; at the same time, the loadings on those highways increased six-fold, mainly due to the increase in the number of trucks and the number of miles they travel. (Truck traffic increased from about 5.7 percent
19、of all vehicle-miles traveled on U.S. highways in 1965 to 7.5 percent in 2000 FHWA, 2022). Second, traffic disruptions must be kept to a minimum during construction. Our overstressed highway system is not very resilient. Thus disruptions of any sort, such as lane and roadway closings, especially in
20、major metropolitan areas and on key Interstate routes, can cause massive traffic snarls. This means that repair and reconstruction operations must often be done at night, which introduces a variety of additional complexities and safety issues. Occasionally, heroic measures must be taken to keep traf
21、fic moving during construction. For example, during construction of the “Big Dig” in Boston, the elevated Central Artery was in continuous service while cut-cover tunnels were constructed directly below it. Third, environmental, community, and safety requirements have become more stringent. For many
22、 good reasons, expectations of what a highway should be, how it should operate, and how it should interact with the environment and adjacent communities are constantly evolving. Designs to promote safety, measures to mitigate a growing list of environmental impacts, and attention to aesthetics have
23、fundamentally changed the scope of major highway projects in the United States. For example, on Marylands $2.4 billion Intercounty Connector project in suburban Washington, D.C., which is now under construction, environmental mitigation accounts for 15 percent of project costs, or about $15 million
24、per mile (AASHTO, 2022). Fourth, costs continue to rise. Building and maintaining highways cost effectively is an ever-present goal of good engineering. But cost increases in highway construction have been extraordinary due in part to the expanded scope of highway projects and construction in demand
25、ing settings. In addition, the costs of the mainstay materialsportland cement, asphalt binder, and steelhave risen dramatically as the world, particularly China, has gone on a construction binge. The Federal Highway Administrations cost indices for portland cement concrete pavement, asphalt pavement
26、, and structural steel increased by 51 percent, 58 percent, and 70 percent respectively between 1995 and 2022 (FHWA, 2022). Fortunately, research and innovation in construction have never stopped, although they are not always sufficiently funded and they seem to fly beneath the radar of many scienti
27、sts and engineers. Nevertheless, there have been great successes, which are cumulatively changing how highways are built in America. The Superpave Design System In response to widespread concerns about premature failures of hot-mix asphalt pavements in the early 1980s, a well funded, congressionally
28、 mandated, crash research program was conducted to improve our understanding of asphalt pavements and their performance. The seven-year Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP), which was managed by the National Research Council, developed a new system of standard specifications, test methods, and
29、engineering practices for the selection of materials and the mix proportions for hot-mix asphalt pavement. The new system has improved matches between combinations of asphalt binder and crushed stone and the climatic and traffic conditions on specific highways. State departments of transportation (D
30、OTs) spend more than $10 billion annually on these pavements, so even modest improvements in pavement durability and useful life can lead to substantial cost savings for agencies and time savings for motorists (TRB, 2022). SHRP rolled out the Superpave system in 1993, but it took years for individua
31、l states and their paving contractors to switch to the new system, which represents a significant departure, not only in design, but also in the procedures and equipment used for testing. Each state DOT had to be convinced that the benefits would outweigh the modest additional costs of Superpave mix
32、es, as well as the time and effort to train its staff and acquire necessary equipment. A survey in 2022 showed that 50 state DOTs (including the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico) were using Superpave (Figure 1). The remaining two states indicated that they would be doing so by the end of 2022. T
33、hroughout the implementation period, researchers continued to refine the system (e.g., using recycled asphalt pavements in the mix design TRB, 2022). It may be years before the cost benefits of Superpave can be quantified. A 1997 study by the Texas Tran sportation Institute projected that, when full
34、y implemented, Superpaves annualized net savings over 20 years would approach $1.8 billion annuallyapproximately $500 million in direct savings to the public and $1.3 billion to highway users (Little et al., 1997). Moreover, analyses by individual states and cities have found that Superpave has dram
35、atically improved performance with little or no increase in cost. Superpave is not only an example of a successful research program. It also demonstrates that a vigorous, sustained technology-transfer effort is often required for innovation in a decentralized sector, such as highway transportation.
36、Prefabricated Components The offsite manufacturing of steel and other components of reinforced concrete for bridges and tunnels is nothing new. But the need for reconstructing or replacing heavily used highway facilities has increased the use of prefabricated components in startling ways. In some ca
37、ses components are manufactured thousands of miles from the job site; in others, they are manufactured immediately adjacent to the site. Either way, we are rethinking how design and construction can be integrated. When the Texas Department of Transportation needed to replace 113 bridge spans on an e
38、levated interstate highway in Houston, it found that the existing columns were reusable, but the bent caps (the horizontal connections between columns) had to be replaced. As an alternative to the conventional, time-consuming, cast-in-place approach, researchers at the University of Texas devised ne
39、w methods of installing precast concrete bents. In this project, the precast bents cut construction time from 18 months to slightly more than 3 months (TRB, 2022). As part of a massive project to replace the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, the California Department of Transportation and the Bay Ar
40、ea Toll Authority had to replace a 350-foot, 10-lane section of a viaduct on Yerba Buena Island. In this case, the contractor, C.C. Myers, prefabricated the section immediately adjacent to the existing viaduct. The entire bridge was then shut down for the 2022 Labor Day weekend, while the existing v
41、iaduct was demolished and the new 6,500-ton segment was “rolled” into place (Figure 2). The entire operation was accomplished 11 hours ahead of schedule (B. Kahn, 2022). Probably the most extensive and stunning collection of prefabricated applications on a single project was on the Central Artery/Tu
42、nnel Project (“Big Dig”) in Boston. For the Ted Williams Tunnel, a dozen 325-foot-long steel tunnel sections were constructed in Baltimore, shipped to Boston, floated into place, and then submerged. However, for the section of the tunnel that runs beneath the Four Points Channel, which is part of th
43、e I-90 extension, bridge restrictions made this approach infeasible. Instead, a huge casting basin was constructed adjacent to the channel where 30- to 50-ton concrete tunnel sections were manufactured The basin was flooded and the sections winched into position with cables and then submerged. An ev
44、en more complicated process was used to build the extension tunnel under existing railroad tracks, which had poor underlying soil conditions. Concrete and steel boxes were built at one end of the tunnel, then gradually pushed into place through soil that had been frozen using a network of brine-fill
45、ed pipes (Vanderwarker, 2022). Specialty Portland Cement Concretes New generations of specialty concretes have improved one or more aspects of performance and allow for greater flexibility in highway design and construction. High-performance concrete typically has compressive strengths of at least 1
46、0,000 psi. Today, ultra-high-performance concretes with formulations that include silica fume, quartz flour, water reducers, and steel or organic fibers have even greater durability and compressive strengths up to 30,000 psi. These new concretes can enable construction with thinner sections and long
47、er spans (M.S. Kahn, 2022). Latex-modified concrete overlays have been used for many years to extend the life of existing, deteriorating concrete bridge decks by the Virginia DOT, which pioneered the use of very early strength latex-modified concretes for this application. In high-traffic situations
48、, the added costs of the concrete have been more than offset by savings in traffic-control costs and fewer delays for drivers (Sprinkel, 2022). When the air temperature dips below 40， costly insulation techniques must be used when pouring concrete for highway projects. By using commercially available admixtures that depress the freezing point of water, the U.S. Cold-Weather Research and Engineering Laboratory has developed new concrete formulations that retain their strength and durability at temperatures as low as 23?F. Compared to insulation techniques, this innovation has sig