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1、Chapter one Introduction 一、定义1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communica
2、tion. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递The design featu
3、res mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission. By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for. Th
4、e feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consist
5、s of two levels. At the lower level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number. The feature of displacement means that language
6、can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future. Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it. 5.语言能力Comp
7、etence Competence is the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页，共 10 页The study o
8、f language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学synchronic linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言 langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all memb
9、ers of a speech community. 10.言语 parole The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性 Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ” correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 12.描述性 Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actual
10、ly use. 二、知识点1. Language is not an isolated phenomenon, it s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure: Langue 和 parole 的区别U.S.A linguist N. Chomsky美国语言学家N. Chomsky in1950 针对 Sauss
11、ure s langue & parole 提出 Competence 和 performance 3. the word “ language”preceded by the zero-article, it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language. Language 一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。三、问答题1. What are major branches of linguistics? What does each study? Phonetics-it s defined as th
12、e study of the phonic medium of language, it s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s languages. Phonology-the study of sounds systemsthe inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology- It s a branch of a grammar which stud
13、ies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax-its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics-It s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words. Sociolinguis
14、tics the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. 2. What makes modern linguistics different from tradit
15、ional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date. 现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。Traditional grammar is prescriptive. It is based on “ high” written language. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页，共 10 页传统语法是
16、规定性的，研究“ 高级 ” 书面语。3. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language, unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of vi
17、ew. 现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。 除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。Chapter Two Phonology 一、定义1.宽式音标Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音标Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 3.清音 Voiceless When t
18、he vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊音 Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音 Vowel The sounds in the production of which no a
19、rticulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. 6.辅音 Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. 7.音位 Phoneme The basic
20、 unit in phonology, it s a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位变体Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 9.音素 phone A phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. It s a spee
21、ch sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最小对立对Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超切分特征Suprasegmental The phonemic features that occur above
22、the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. 12.互补分布complementary distribution P35 Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language The limited ra
23、nge of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页，共 10 页linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音 stops When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total o
24、r complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they areb p t d k g 二、知识点1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not
25、 had written form. 2. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. 3. Phonetics 组成及研究对象详见教材 Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学4. Articulatory Apparatus /Organs of Speech Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔Oral .口腔 greatest source of modification of ai
26、r stream found here Nasal 鼻腔5. The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. 6. Obstruction between the back of th
27、e tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd. 7.nasal consonants: m / n / 8. A P
28、hone is a phonetic unit or segment. 9.English has four basic types of intonation: Falling tone; Rising tone; Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone 三、问答题1. How are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and. By manner of articulation 根据发音位置，发音方式，归纳各辅音的特征。2How do phonetics and phonology
29、differ in their focus of study? Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their differences. Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. 3.What s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phone
30、me? Phonea speech sound, a phonetic unit. Phonemea collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. 4. What is a minimal pair and a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小
31、对立组在一种语言中非常重要? Minimal pair two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页，共 10 页occurs in the same position. 除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal set a group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一组具有上
32、述特征的语音组合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位. 5.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription one letter symbol for one sound. Narrow tra
33、nscription diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. Chapter Three Morphology 一、定义1.词素 Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2.自由词素Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meani
34、ng and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏着词素Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 4.词根 Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed wit
35、hout total loss of identity. 5.词缀 Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.
36、7.派生词缀Derivational affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. 8.词干 Stem A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 9.形态学规则Morphologic
37、al rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前缀 Prefix Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes be- and en(m)- 11.后缀 Suffix Suffixes are added to
38、 the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 5 页，共 10 页二、知识点1. some words maybe said to contain a root morphem
39、e. 2.Compound features: orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the me
40、anings of all its component Chapter Four Syntax 一、定义1.句子 sentence A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 2.语言运用Linguistic competence The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 3.谓语 Predic
41、ate The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. 4.层次结构Hierarchical structure The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each struct
42、ural constituent, such as NP and VP. 5.语法关系Grammatical relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. 6.表层结构S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 7.深层结构D-structure A level of syntactic r
43、epresentation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 8.转换原则Transformation rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 二、知识点1.syntax 这个单词源于Greek,本义是 arrangement. 2.我们把s
44、yntax 的学习看作a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence. 3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. 4.句子的分类simple sentence Types of sentences coordinate or compound sent
45、ence Complex sentence 简单句 -It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 并列句合成句 -It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 6 页，共 10 页such as “but”, ”
46、and”. ect. 复合句 It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. 5.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels. 6.短语类型Noun Phrase NP Phrasal Verb Phrase VP Categories
47、 Preposition Phrase PP Adjective Phrase AP 三、问答题1. Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences. For example: The woman hit the man with an umbrella. Chapter 5 Semantics 一、定义1.命名论 The naming theory The naming theo
48、ry, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are
49、just names or labels for things. 2.意念论 The conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3.语境论 Conceptualism It s based on the presumpti
50、on that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. There are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. 4.行为主义论Behaviorism It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the re