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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上Preface寒假里我接受了下学期讲授汉语言文学专业英语这样一个任务，于是便开始了这方面的准备工作。首先是落实教材，经过多种渠道查阅，到目前为止新闻学、经济学、法学等很多专业都已经有了自己的专业英语教材，而汉语言文学专业还不曾出现一本这样的的英语教材，因此必须自己动手来编选一本这样的教材。汉语言文学专业英语为何物？在此之前可以说我们很多人都很模糊，我个人的教育履历也不曾接受过这方面的课程和学习，因此只能根据相关资料以及个人的理解、思考来完成。首先是专业词汇编选，开始我想把专业词汇按照相关课程分类细化，这样会让学生更明晰，但是真正做起来很难只得放弃，因为课程交叉很紧密，
2、一个单词可能在很多课程中出现。最后我只好根据专业特点把词汇主要分为两个方面，一是语言学词汇，一是文学词汇，这其实也就囊括了整个汉语言文学专业的课程，这两类词汇以字母顺序排列，以附录形式出现，以供学生查阅、识记。按照院里要求，完成这项工作其实也就算完成了任务。但是我总觉得作为一本讲义和一门课程，作为英语学习，仅有这样一本词汇手册是远远不够的，必须有相关的文章作为支撑。于是我便开始了文章的编选，做这样一件工作很是艰难的，一方面文章很多如何遴选和分类，二是确定的文章网上搜不到只得敲击键盘一个字母一个字母的完成，这些都需要大量的时间。最后我将文章分为四大类四个单元，即语言学理论、文学理论、中国文学、外
3、国文学。根据课时和教学实际每类只选两篇代表性文章，借助这些文章一方面学习了英语，更重要的是我试图让学生初步了解自己所学的专业，懂得她的特点和魅力，养成自己对专业的兴趣，为后面的专业学习奠定基础。由于时间限制，每篇文章所需要的要素只得在讲课中完成。最后所附的书目一方面表明我所借鉴的资料，另一方面也是提供给学生的学习参考书。整个寒假的大部分时间都耗在了这样一件工作上，由于没有现成的教材可借鉴，也由于时间的限制，更由于自己一个人孤军奋战和水平所限，呈现在大家眼前的这本姑且称之为教材的文本无疑显得不够成熟和亟待完善，因此需要更多人的批评和指教。我当然希望这样一本不成熟的讲义能对学生的专业英语学习有所帮
4、助。Unit One: Theory of LinguisticsText 1Language and LiteratureEdward SapirLanguages are more to us than systems of thought-transference They are invisible garments that drape themselves about our spirit and give a predetermined form to all its symbolic expressionWhen the expression is of unusual sig
5、nificance， we call it 1iterature. Art is so personal an expression that we do not like to feel that it is bound to predetermined form of any sortThe possibilities of individual expression are infinite，language in particular is the most fluid of mediums Yet some limitation there must be to this freed
6、om，some resistance of the mediumIn great art there is the illusion of absolute freedom The formal restraints imposed by the material-paint，black，and white，marble，piano tones，or whatever it may beare not perceived；it is as though there were a limitless margin of elbow-room between the artists fullest
7、 utilization of form and the most that the material is innately capable of. The artist has intuitively surrendered to the inescapable tyranny of the material，made its brute nature fuse easily with his conception .The material “disappears precisely because there is nothing in the artists conception t
8、o indicate that any other material exists For the time being，he，and we with him，move in the artistic medium as a fish moves in the water，oblivious of the existence of an alien atmosphere No sooner, however，does the artist transgress the law of his medium than we realize with a start that there is a
9、medium to obey. Language is the medium of literature as marble or bronze or clay are the materials of the sculptor Since every language has its distinctive peculiarities，the innate formal limitations-and possibilities-of one literature are never quite the same as those of another The literature fash
10、ioned out of the forms and substance of a language has the color and the texture of its matrix The literary artist may never be conscious of just how he is hindered or helped or otherwise guided by the matrix，but when it is a question of translating his work into another language，the nature of the o
11、riginal matrix manifests itself at once .All his effects have been calculated, or intuitively felt，with reference to the formal “genius of his own language；they cannot be carried over without loss or modification. Croce is therefore perfectly right in saying that a work of literary art can never be
12、translatedNevertheless literature does get itself translated，sometimes with astonishing adequacy. This brings up the question whether in the art of literature there are not intertwined two distinct kinds or levels of arta generalized nonlinguistic artwhich can be transferred without loss into an ali
13、en linguistic medium，and a specifically linguistic art that is not transferable 1 believe the distinction is entirely valid，though we never get the two levels pure in practiceLiterature moves in language as a medium，but that medium comprises two layers，the latent content of language-our intuitive re
14、cord of experience-and the particular conformation of a given language-the specific how of our record of experience Literature that draws its sustenance mainlynever entirely-from the lower, say a play of Shakespeares，is translatable without too great a loss of character If it moves in the upper rath
15、er than in the lower levela fair example is a lyric of Swinburnes。一it is as good as untranslatableBoth types of literary expression may be great or mediocre.There is really no mystery in the distinction. It can be clarified a little by comprising literature with science. A scientific truth is impers
16、onal，in its essence it is untinctured by the particular linguistic medium in which it finds expression. It can as readily deliver its message in Chinese as in English. Nevertheless it must have some expression，and that expression must needs be a linguistic one. Indeed the apprehension of the scienti
17、fic truth is itself a linguistic process，for thought is nothing but language denuded of its outward garb. The proper medium of scientific expression is therefore a generalized language that may be defined as a symbolic algebra of which all known languages are translations. One can adequately transla
18、te scientific literature because the original scientific expression is itself a translation. Literary expression is personal and concrete，but this does not mean that its significance is altogether bound up with the accidental qualities of the medium. A truly deep symbolism，for instance，does not depe
19、nd on the verbal associations of a particular language but rests securely on an intuitive basis that underlies all linguistic expression. The artists “intuition”，to use Croces term，is immediately fashioned out of a generalized human experience-thought and feeling-of which his own individual experien
20、ce is a highly personalized selection. The thought relations in this deeper level have no specific linguistic vesture；the rhythms are free，not bound，in the first instance，to the traditional rhythms of the artists language. Certain artists whose spirit moves largely in the non-linguistic（better, in t
21、he generalized linguistic）layer even find a certain difficulty in getting themselves expressed in the rigidly set terms of their accepted idiomOne feels that they are unconsciously striving for a generalized art language，a literary algebra，that is related to the sum of all known languages as a perfe
22、ct mathematical symbolism is related to all the roundabout reports of mathematical relations that normal speech is capable of conveying. Their art expression is frequently strained，it sounds at times like a translation from an unknown original-which，indeed，is precisely what it isThese artists-Whitma
23、ns and Brownings-impress us rather by the greatness of their spirit than the felicity of their artTheir relative failure is of the greatest diagnostic value as an index of the pervasive presence in literature of a larger, more intuitive linguistic medium than any particular language. Nevertheless，hu
24、man expression being what it is，the greatest-or shall we say the most satisfying-literary artists，the Shakespeares and Heines，are those who have known subconsciously to fit or trim the deeper intuition to the provincial accents of their daily speech. In them there is no effect of strainTheir persona
25、l “intuition” appears as a completed synthesis of the absolute art of intuition and the innate，specialized art of the linguistic medium. With Heine，for instance，one is under the illusion that the universe speaks German. The material “disappears”. Every language is itself a collective art of expressi
26、onThere is concealed in it a particular set of esthetic factors-phonetic，rhythmic，symbolic，morphological-which it does not completely share with any other languageThese factors may either merge their potencies with those of that unknown，absolute language to which I have referredthis is the method of
27、 Shakespeare and Heine-or they may weave a private，technical art fabric of their own，the innate art of the language intensified or sublimatedThe latter type，the more technically literary art of Swinburne and of hosts of delicate “minor” poets，is too fragile for enduranceIt is built out of spirituali
28、zed material，not out of spirit. The successes of the Swinburnes are as valuable for diagnostic purposes as the semi-failures of the BrowningsThey show to what extent literary art may lean on the collective art of the language itself. The more extreme technical practitioners may so over-individualize
29、 this collective art as to make it almost unendurableOne is not always thankful to have ones flesh and blood frozen to ivoryText 2Sign, Signified, SignifierFerdinand de SaussureSome people regard language，when reduced to its element, as a naming-process onlya 1ist of words，each corresponding to the
30、thing that it names. For example： This conception is open to criticism at several points. It assumes that ready-made ideas exist before words；it does not tell us whether a name is vocal or psychological in nature （arbor，for instance，can be considered from either viewpoint)；finally, it lets us assume
31、 that the linking of a name and a thing is a very simple operation-an assumption that is anything but true. But this rather naive approach can bring us near the truth by showing us that the linguistic unit is a double entity, one formed by the association of two terms. We have seen in considering th
32、e speaking-circuit that both terms involved in the linguistic sign are psychological and are united in the brain by an associated bond. This point must be emphasized. The linguistic sign unites，not a thing and a name，but a concept and a sound-image. The 1atter is not the material sound，a purely phys
33、ical thing，but the psychological imprint of the sound，the impression that it makes on our sense. The sound-image is sensory, and if I happen to call it “material”，it is only in that sense, and by way of opposing it to the other term of the association，the concept，which is generally more abstract.The
34、 psychological character of our soundimages becomes apparent when we observe our own speechWithout moving our lips or tongue，we can talk to ourselves or recite mentally a selection of verse. Because we regard the words of our language as sound-images, we must avoid speaking of the “phonemes” that ma
35、ke up the words. This term，which suggests vocal activity；is applicable to the spoken word only, tothe realization of the inner image in discourse. We can avoid that misunderstanding by speaking of the sounds and syllables of a word provided we remember that the names refer to the soundimage. The lin
36、guistic sign is then a twosided psychological entity that can be represented by the drawing： The two elements are intimately united，and each recalls the other. Whether we try to find the meaning of the Latin word arbor or the word that Latin uses to designate the concept “tree”it is clear that only
37、the associations sanctioned by that language appear to us to conform to reality, and we disregard whatever others might be imagined Our definition of the linguistic sign poses an important question of terminologyI call the combination of a concept and a soundimage a sign, but in current usage the te
38、rm generally designates only a sound-image，a word，for example (arbor，etc) .One tends to forget that arbor is called a sign only because it carries the concept “tree”，with the result that the idea of the sensory part implies the idea of the whole. Ambiguity would disappear if the three notions involv
39、ed here were designated by three names，each suggesting and opposing the others. I propose to retain the word signsigne to designate the whole and to replace concept and sound-Image respectively by signified signifieand signifiersignificant；the last two terms have the advantage of indicating the oppo
40、sition that separates them from each other and from the whole of which they are parts. As regards sign，if I am satisfied with it，this is simply because I do not know of any word to replace it，the ordinary language suggesting no other. The linguistic sign，as defined，has two primordial characteristics
41、In enunciating them I am also positing the basic principles of any study of this type Principle l：The Arbitrary Nature of the SignThe bond between the signifier and the signified is arbitrarySince I mean by sign the whole that results from the association of the signifier with the signified，I can si
42、mply say：the linguistic sign is arbitrary The idea of “sister” is not linked by any inner relationship to the succession of sounds s-o-r which serves as its signifier in French；that it could be represented equally by just any other sequence is proved by differences among languages and by the very ex
43、istence of different languages：the signified “ox” has as its signifier b-o-f，(boeuf) on one side of the border and o-k-s (Ocbs) on the other. No one disputes the principle of the arbitrary nature of the sign，but it is often easier to discover a truth than to assign to it its proper place Principle 1
44、 dominates all the linguistics of language；its consequences are numberless. It is true that not all of them are equally obvious at first glance；only after many detours does one discover them, and with them the primordial importance of the principle. One remark in passing：when semiology becomes organ
45、ized as a science，the question will arise whether or not it properly includes modes of expression based on completely natural signs，such as pantomime. Supposing that the new science welcomes them，its main concern will still be the whole group of systems grounded on the arbitrariness of the sign. In
46、fact，every means of expression used in society is based，in principle，on collective behavior or-what amounts to the same thingonconventionPolite formulas，for instance，though often imbued with a certain natural expressiveness(as in the case of a Chinese who greets his emperor by bowing down to the gro
47、und nine times),are nonetheless fixed by rule；it is this rule and not the intrinsic value of the gestures that obliged one to use them. Signs that are wholly arbitrary realize better than the others the ideal of the semiological process；that is why language, the most complex and universal of all sys
48、tems of expression，is also the most characteristic；in this sense linguistics call become the master-pattern for all branches of semiology although language is only one particular semiological system. The word symbol has been used to designate the linguistic sign，or more specifically, what is here ca
49、lled the signifier. Principle I in particular weighs against the use of this term0ne characteristic of the symbol is that it is never wholly arbitrary, it is not empty, for there is the rudiment of a natural bond between the signifier and the signifiedThe symbol of justice，a pair of scales，could not be replaced by just any other symbol，such as a chariot. The word arbitrary also calls for commentThe term sh