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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上Chapter 1 Linguistics考点1：定义（选择题或填空题）Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language distinguishes human beings from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system. Linguistics: the scientific study of hum
2、an languages.It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings.（判断题）注：语言学研究的是所有人类的语言，并不是局限于如英语等某一门语言。Language is vocal1) The primary medium for all languages is sound.2) Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. Word is the smallest uni
3、t that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance.词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位考点2：Design features 语言的定义特征 （分析大题）Design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. （定义填空题） 语言的四个Design features 也是区别人类语言好动物语言的特征A、Arbit
4、rariness 任意性There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言形式的符号与所表示的意义无天然的联系。Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. （语素音义关系的任意性）Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. （语言在句法层面是非任意性）【判断题】The link b
5、etween a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.语言的形式和意义的连接是约定俗成，即规约性 任意性具有两个层面，而非any level ! (判断题)Arbitrariness Makes language potentially creativelanguageconvention Makes language systematicB、Duality 双重性，二元性Human language is productive or creative due to duality and recursivenes
6、s(递归性).（填空题）The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: w At the lower level (the secondary level) : meaningful units w At the higher level (the primary level) : meaningless segments Expression of duality: w 1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic unitsw 2. Com
7、bine small units into big units C、Creativity 创造性Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. （recurse sentence）Recursiveness：it refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without definite limit.D、Displacement 移位性Human languages e
8、nable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. （定义填空题）移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体，时间或观点。动物语言与人类语言移位性的表现 (判断题)Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, on the contrary, sti
9、mulus free.(动物语言会受到直接刺激控制)Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.考点3：Functions of Language 语言的功能A、The informative function (信息功能)Informative function: the major role of language; language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to commu
10、nicate new information. B、Interpersonal Function (人际功能)Interpersonal Function: the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.eg: Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant等表称呼的C、The performative function (施事功能):T
11、he performative function: This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. 用说话表示行为D、The emotive function (情感功能): The emotive function: one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. 标志性语句：
12、swear word(誓言)、obscenities(侮辱之词)、involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery、conventional words/phrases,eg: God, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh 我的妈呀，老天爷啊，晕E、Phatic communion （寒暄功能）The use of language to establish an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.w E.g. Greetings, Farewells,
13、 and Comments on the weather, etc.F、The recreational function （娱乐功能）The use of language for the sheer joy of using it such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting. G、Metalingual function (元语言功能) Metalingual function：our language can be used to talk about itself, talking about talk and thinking ab
14、out thinking. To be honest; on second thought; to tell you the truth; as a matter of fact; that is to say; Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in another way in argumentation. w It makes the language infinitely self-reflexive (自我反身性)考点4：M
15、ain branches of Linguistics (考查定义！) 1. Sound phonetics 语音 2. Sounds phonology 音系学 3. Word morphology 形态学 4. Words/sentence syntax 句法学 5. Meaning semantics 语义学 6. Meaning in a context pragmatics 语用学（language in use）Macrolinguistics （微观语言学）Psycholinguistics 心里语言学 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学考点5：distinctions
16、 in linguistics A、Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 描述性与规定性 People say X. Descriptive（To describe the linguistic facts observed） Dont say X. Prescriptive （To lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior）Modern linguistics is mostly Descriptive. 现代语言学更多的是描述某些现象Tradition English belongs to Prescriptive
17、. 古代英语则有许多条条框框B、Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性 （判断题）A synchronic (共时的) description, the description of a language at some point in time, takes a fixed instant as its point of observation (static state). A Grammar of Modern Greek; The Structure of Shakespeares English English Examined: Two Centuri
18、es of Comment on the Mother-Tongue. Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Diachronic (历时的): the description of a language as it changes through time. (dynamic state) Pejorative (轻蔑语) Sense Development in Engl
19、ish Pejorative Sense Development in English.C、Langue & parole 语言和言语Langue (language): 说话者的语言能力the generalized rules of languageParole (speaking):语言上的实际表现 the application of rulesD、Competence and performance Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language (语言能力)Performance: the act
20、ual use of language in concrete situations (语言运用)Langue-paroleCompetence-performanceLangue is a social product and a set of conventions for a communitySaussure looks at language from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of viewCompetence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individualN. Ch
21、omsky deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.就词的内部结构而言，词是所有语言单位中最稳定的。Chapter 2 Speech soundWhat are the three cavities of the vocal tract? The pharyngeal cavity:咽腔 The oral cavity:口腔 The
22、nasal cavity:鼻腔G: velar（软腭音): 舌后部抬升抵住软腭所发出的音 k g w k as in cat g as in get as in sing w as in wet前元音：由舌的前部发出舌尖抵下齿，舌前部向硬腭抬起 i: i e 考点1：Consonants 辅音 Vowels 元音左边：voiceless 右边：voicedStop 爆破音 Nasal 鼻音 Fricative 摩擦音 Lateral边音 Affricate 塞擦音会描述辅音， (填空题中找出两个辅音共同的特点)eg: p voiceless bilabial stop b voiced bil
23、abial stop 他们的共同特点是都具有bilabial stop考点2：元音的描述Classification of RP and GA pure vowels 参见P36FrontCentralBackUngroundedRoundedUngroundedTenseLaxTenseLaxTenseLaxTenseLaxHigh MidLowEg: love mid back lax ungrounded voel 考点：会判断broad transcription宽式音标与narrow transcription严式音标的区别eg: peak pi:k broad transcript
24、ion pi:k narrow transcription考点：Minimal pairs (最小对立体）Four requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) They have the same number of sound segments. a. 彼此的语音数量相等 * (dip disk) 2) They are different in meaning. b. 彼此的意义不同 3) They differ only in one sound segment. c. 彼此仅存在一个语音的差异 * (bit bad) 4) The di
25、fferent sounds occur in the same position in the strings. d.语音差异出现在同一位置上l pill/bill; pill/till; till/kill; kill/dill/; dill/gilll cut/but; big/peg; peak/leap考点：Phones (音素)Phone: a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Allophon
26、es: variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.The minimal distinctive speech sounds-PhonemesVariants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.the non-distinctive speech sounds T
27、wo requirements for phones to fall into the same phoneme:满足allophones 的两个条件：1) allophones of the same phoneme should be in complementary distribution. 必须形成互补关系/l/ l /_ V (clear l) eg: lead l / V_ (dark l) eg: feell Not all the phones(sounds) in complementary distribution are considered to be allopho
28、nes of the same phoneme-l they have no phonetic similarity.(成互补分布的不一定都属于同一音位）2) they must bear phonetic similarity. 发音近似考点：Assimilation (同化)(1) within a syllable 音节内 P42 ex.2-1-2-3can kn / _ +nasal nasalization 鼻音化tenth tn n n / _ +dental dentalization 齿音化sink sk n / _ +velar velarization 软腭化(2) Acr
29、oss syllables 跨音节 P43 ex.2-4pan caken k velarsun glassesn g velar(3) Across word boundaries 跨过词的界限 P43 ex.2-5You can keep them He can go nown k velar n g velarChapter 3 Morphology考点1：定义！Morphology 形态学:the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are fo
30、rmed from smaller components：Morphemes Morphemes(语素)：The smallest meaningful components of words. 【smallest unit that carries meaning】Phoneme(词素): 【smallest unit that can distinguish meaning】考点2：词素的分类A、in terms of their capacity of occurring alone Free morphemes自由语素 Bound morphemes黏着语素B、Poly-morphem
31、ic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes. root the part left when all the affixes are removed 词根 stem the part left when a certain affix is removed 词干 affix the part which is attached to other words; usually bound morphemes 词缀C、Inflectional morphemes曲折词Derivational morphem
32、es派生词题目形式：考查词语的分析，如：organizations 这个词语词干是？ 答：organization（词干，去掉具有语法意义的部分） 词根是？ 答：organize Higher education 分析词缀意义Chapter 4 From Word to Text考点1：Definition of syntax （填空）Syntax is the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.句法学是研究句子内部组成/成分间的关系考点2：三种句法关系(给出例子，写出反映的句法关系)
33、A、纵向关系 【Relation of Substitutability OR Vertical Relations】Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.在相同结构的句子中，语法上可以互相替的词类或语词的集合e.g. The_ smiles. man boy girlB、横向关系 【 Associative Relations（联想关系） OR
34、Paradigmatic Relations(纵聚合关系)】Yesterday.eg: He went there last week.The day before.C、同现关系【Relation of Co-occurrence 】Words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. 同现关系指小句中不同集合的词语允许或要求
35、和另一集合或类别中的词语一起组成句子或句子的某一特定部分。eg:(Preceded by) NP (followed by) the strong man smiles the pretty girl cries the young boy sings考点3：IC的缩写Immediate constituents 直接成分（选择题）To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis.直接成分分析法(a) Tree diagram 树
36、形图 (分析题)S NP VPDet N V NP Det NThe girl ate the applePhrasal-level S= NP+VP VP=V+NP NP= Det+NWord-level Det the, a , etc. N girl,apple, etc. V ate, took, etc.(b) Bracketing 括号法(The) (girl)(ate)(the) (apple)Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constit
37、uent structure of a grammatical unit.考点4：Endocentric and Exocentric Construction 向心结构和离心结构（选择题）Endocentric Constructions （向心结构） is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or hea
38、d. verb phrases 动词短语 gerundial phrase 动名词短语 Swimming in the lake is. participial phrase 分词短语 (bridge) damaged beyond repair. infinitive phrase 不定式 (my purpose is) to cheer up everybody. complex verbal phrase 复合动词短语 He will be living in Beijing.Exocentric Constructions （离心结构）A group of syntactically
39、related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including: the basic sentence (subject+predicate) the prepositional phrase the predicate (verb + object) construction the connective (
40、be + complement) construction区别：向心结构至少有一个head; Coordination 并列关系 two or more headsEndocentric Constructions (所有的并列结构都属于向心结构，“and”、“or”、“but”)Subordination 从属关系 one head离心结构则没有head考点5：predicate与predicator的区别Predicate述谓成分: a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obl
41、igatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. 谓语是指在句子结构二分法中除主语之外的其他所有成分。Predicate includes constituents such as verb, object, complement,etc.Predicator(谓语动词): verb or verbs included in a predicate.考点6：clause与 phrase 的区别（1）Clause 有自己的逻辑主语、谓语；phrase则没有（2）Clause 功能上与句子相似；phrase
42、只是在语法上不是完整的句子Chapter 5 Meaning （Sense Relations 涵义关系）考点1定义（选择和填空）、Synonymy 同义关系Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. （Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.）、Antonymy 反义关系Antonymy means oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.、
43、Hyponymy 上下义关系（Meaning Inclusiveness 意义内包关系）Hyponymy is a matter of class membership.（ A is included in B.）Superordinate 上义词: The upper term in this sense relationHyponym下义词: The lower termsCo-hyponyms同下义词: members of the same class Cf.: chair and furniture, rose and flowerWhat are characteristics o
44、f hyponymy?(判断题)上下义词都可缺失！1. a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself.一个上坐标词同时是它自己的上坐标词 auto-hyponym自我下义词: animal is a hyponym of itself2. a superordinate may be missing上坐标词会缺损 (判断题) red, green, blue, black, white3. hyponyms may be missing下义词也会缺损 (判断题) uncles: 叔叔，伯伯，舅舅，姑父考点2 ：Types of synonyms同义词类型1. Dialectal synonyms: -synonyms used in different regional dialects British English and American EnglishAutumn = fall lift = elevator luggage = baggage lorry = truck petrol =gasoline flat =apartment2. Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing