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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上AAcquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subcon-scious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. “Abbreviation”, also called in some cases “clipping”, means that a word that seems unnecessarily
2、long is shortened, usually by clipping either the front or the back part of it, e.g., telephonephone, professorprof., etc.Broadly speaking, abbreviation includes acronyms that are made up from the first letters of the long name of an organization, e.g., World BankWB, European Economic CommunityEEC,
3、etc. Other examples of acronyms can be found with terminologies, to be read like one word, e.g., radio detecting and rangingradar. Test of English as a Foreign LanguageTOEFL , etc.arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a p
4、ig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some co
5、mpounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.assimilation rule? the de
6、letion rule?The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal n that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant
7、n assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as in, i or im when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete- (alveolar) inconceivable- (velar) input-imput (bilabial) The “deletion rule”
8、tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a g when it occ
9、urs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there?The term “antonymy” is used for oppositions of meaning; words that stand opposite in meaning are called “antonyms”, or opposites, which fall
10、 in there categories1) gradable antonyms (e.g, good-bad); (2) complementary antonyms (e.g., single-married); (3) relational antonyms (e.g., buy-sell).affixation, conversion and compounding?“Affixation” is the morphological process whereby grammatical of lexical information is added to the base (root
11、 or stem). It has been the oldest and the most productive word-formation methodanalogical creation?The process of “analogical creation”, as one of the English tendencies in English word-formation, refers to the phenomenon that a new word or a new phrase is coined by analogy between a newly created o
12、ne and an existing one. For example, “marathon” appeared at the First Olympic Games and by analogy modern English created such words as “telethon”, “talkthon”, etc. Analogy may create single words (e.g., sunrise-moonrise, earthrise, etc.; earthquake-starquake, youthquake, etc.) and phrases (e.g., en
13、vironmental pollution-sound pollution, air pollution, cultural pollution, etc.).assimilation, dissimilation and metathesis?“Assimilation” refers to change of a sound as the result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation. The assimitative processe
14、s at word in language could be explained by the “theory of least effort” ,i.e., in speaking we tend to exert as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often. In expressi
15、ons such as “immobile”, “illegal”, etc., the negative prefixes should be or have been “in-” etymologically.applied linguistics?In the broadest sense, applied Linguistics refers to the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as lexicography, translation, speech patho
16、logy, etc. Applied linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology, and information theory as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus desi
17、gn, speech therapy, language planning, machine translation, various facets of communication research, and many others. In the narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the study of second /foreign language learning and teaching. It serves as a mediating area which interprets the results of linguis
18、tic theories and makes them user-friendly to the language teacher and learner.assimilation rule - The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caus
19、ed by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of
20、 that phoneme. For example, p and ph are the two phones under the phoneme /p/ in English, thus p and ph are called the allophones of the phoneme auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.acoustic phonetics:
21、It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.B branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able
22、 to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.“Borrowing” means the English language borrowed words from foreign languages, which f
23、all in four categories: aliens, denizens, translation-loans and semantic borrowings.“Aliens” are foreign loans that still keep their alien shapes, i. e., morphological and phonological features, e.g., “elite”, “coup dtat”, “coup”, etc.(from French). “Deniens” , also foreign words, have transformed t
24、heir foreign appearance, i.e., they have been Angolcized (or Americanized), e. g., “get” (a Scandinavian borrowing), “theater” (a French loan), etc. “Hybrids” are also denizens, because they are words made up of two parts both from foreign soil, such as “sociology” (“socio-” from French and logy fro
25、m Greek).“Translation-loans” are words imported by way of translation, e. g., “black humor” from French(“humor noir”), “found object” form French ,too (“object trouve”), etc. Finally, semantic borrowings have acquired new meaning under the influence of language or languages other than the source ton
26、gue. For example, “gift” mean “the price of a wife ” in Old English (450-1150AD), and after the semantic borrowing of the meaning of “gift or present” of the Scandinavian term “gipt”, it meant and still means “gift” in the modern sense of it.blending, abbreviation and back formation?“Blending” is a
27、relatively complex form of compounding in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots, e.g., smogsmoke+fog, boatelboat + hotel, etc.“Back-formation” refers to an abnormal type of wor
28、d-formation where a shorter word is derived by detecting an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language. It is a special kind of metanalyais, combined with analogical creation, e.g., editoredit, enthusiasmenthuse, etc.Bilingualism and diglossiaIt has been observerd that in some
29、 speech communities，two language are used side with each having a different role to play； and language switching occurs when the situation changges。This constitutes the situation of bilingualism。behaviorism- Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is sim
30、ply a matter of imitation and habit formation. A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him; people recognize the childs attempts and reinforce the attempts by responding differently, the child repeats the right sounds or patterns to get the reward (reinforcement). The child lea
31、rns the language gradually in much the same way as habit-forming. So imitation and practice are preliminary, discrimination and generalization are key to language development in this theory.bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined w
32、ith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word,such as the ing,-ed and un-,im-,-ful,-tion,they can not be used alone. bound morphemes can further be classified as derivational and inflectional morphemes.CContext: It is generally considered as the constituted knowledge shared by the speake
33、r and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. Constative: Constatives
34、 were statements that either state or describe, and were verifi-able, such as the sentence “China is a developing country”, it is simply a sentence to state the fact that China is a developing country, from this point of view, we can say it is a constative.culture Culture, in a broad sense, means th
35、e total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk cultur
36、e, enterprise culture or food culture etc. Generally speaking, there are two types of culture: material and spiritual.cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by ea
37、ch speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dogs barking system. If a human being is br
38、ought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolfs roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.Complementary distribution: refers to the relation betw
39、een two similar sounds which are allophones of the same phoneme. If the two sounds do not distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonemic environment and can not occur in the same phonemic environment, they are said to be in complementary distribu
40、tion. For example, the clearl and the dark are two similar sounds and they can not distinguish meaning, they appear in different situations, i.e. the clearl always appears before a vowel while the dark l always appears before a vowel and a consonant, so they are two allophones of the same phoneme /l
41、/, they are in Complementary distribution.collocation?“Collocation” is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can “read” a “book”; “correct” can narrowly occur with “book” which is supposed to have faults, but
42、no one can “read” a “mistake” because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.“clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classified into two kinds: finite and non-fin
43、ite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase.category?The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More
44、specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.concord? government?“Concord ” may be defined as requirement that the forms of two
45、 or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g., “man runs”, “men run”. “Government” requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic class
46、shall exhibit the form of a specific category. In English, government applies only to pronouns among the variable words, that is, prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with them, e.g., “I helped him; he helped me.”conjoining
47、? embedding? recursiveness?“Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.” “Embedding” refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (or main clause) in syntacti
48、c subordination, e.g., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.” By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, e.g., “I saw the man who killed a cat whoa rat whicht
49、hat”contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events