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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上English Lexicology Course Chapter One: Lexicology:1. Lexicology:Lexi = “word, phrase”;(Greek); Lexicos= “having to do with words”;Logos= “a department of language” (Greek);Lexicology: a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and properties of words as the main u
2、nits of language2. Recognition of WordsWhat is a word?Jackson & Amvela, 2000:50-52: Four CharacteristicsThe word is an uninterruptible.unit.The word may consist of one or more morpheme.The word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.The word should belong to a specific word class or part of sp
3、eech.Zhangweiyou(1997:7):A minimal free form of a languageA sound unityA unit of meaningA form that can be function alone in a sentenceThree senses of “word”:(1) A cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanksPhonological: / it is wLndfl /Orthographical: It is wonderful. (Pause o
4、r Blank)Phonological: / its wLndfl /Orthographical: Its wonderful. (Liaison or Contracted form)(2). The common factor underlining a set of forms Noun: girl ; girlsVerbs: work; worked; works; working(3). A grammatical unit between morpheme and word group ( hierarchical rank)TextSentenceWord group/phr
5、aseWordMorphemeDefinition:(1)“The smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech and writing.”(Longman Dictionary of Applies Linguistics: P 311.)(2)“A free form that does not consist entirely of lesser free forms is a word.”(Bloomfield, 1933.) (3)“A word is a minimal free form
6、 of a language that has given sound and meaning and syntactic function.”(Zhangweiyou,1997: 7)4. Classification of Words (1) Variable and invariable wordsWords can be classified according to their variability.Variable words: In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically
7、different forms; one the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.Follow matFollows matsFollowingFollowedInvariable words: those words that do not have inflective endingsSince; when; through; hello; (2) Grammatical and lexical wordsIn terms of the meaning expressed by wordsGrammatica
8、l words (Function words, and empty words) are words that link its different parts together.Conjunctions; prepositions, articles; and pronounsLexical words (Content words, Full words) are words that carry the main content of a language Nouns; verbs; adjectives; adverbs(3) Closed -class and open-class
9、ed words Closed class words: One whose membership is fixed and limited. New members are not regularly added.Conjunctions; prepositions, articles; and pronounsOpen-classed words: One whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimitedNouns; verbs; adjectives; adverbs (4) Basic words and non-basic
10、wordsBasic wordsCharacteristics:All national character(the most common things and phenomena of the world)natural phenomena; human body and relations; names of plants and animals; numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctionsStabilityProductivityPolysemyCollocability (set expressions; idiomatic usag
11、es; proverbial sayings and the like)a change of heart; after ones heart; a heart of gold; cry ones heart out; eat ones heart out; cross ones heart; heart and soul; with all ones heart; wear ones heart; Ones heart sinks within one; take something to heart; have ones heart in ones mouthNon-basic words
12、 a. Terminology(术语、术语学) :the words used in particular discipline and academic areaIn medicine: photoscanning; hepatitis;In mathematics: algebra; calculus;In education: audiovisual; microteaching;In music: symphony; orchestra;b. Jargon (行话、行业语): the specialized vocabulary by which members of particul
13、ar arts, sciences, trades, and professions communicate the jargon of law; medical jargonIn business: ballpark figures=estimate; In horse-racing: hold him back=force a horse to run behind at the beginning of a race so as to reserve speed for the finishIn medicine: paranoid=suspicious, worriedIn warfa
14、re: buster=bombPeople outside the circle have difficulty in understanding the words.c. Slang (俚语): the sub-standard languageCasual, very informal words, using expressive but informal words and expressionsBeat it ! Rack off! (leave)Beaver (girl); smoky, bear (police); catch(talk to); holler(call); Ro
15、ger(understand); X-rays(radar)d. Argot (隐语、黑话)Speech spoken and understood by only small peopleCan-opener (all-purpose key); dip (pick=pocket); persuader(dagger)e. Dialectal Words (方言词)Words spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a particular social class(socia
16、l dialect or sociolect)f. Archaism（古词语）: words that were once in common use but are now restricted only to special or limited use.Thou (you); Ye (plural you); thee (objective you); Wilt (will);brethren (brother); quoth (said);g. Neologism（新词）: Newly-created words or expressions or words that have ta
17、ken on new meaningmicroelectronics = the branch of electronics dealing with integrated circuitsfuturology = a study that deals with future possibilities based on current trendsAIDS = acquired immune deficiency syndromeE- mail = electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systemsinternet =
18、an international computer network linking both business and private usersfreak out = withdraw from reality and society esp. by taking drugs.User-friendly (用户友好的)Software (软件)Floppy disk (软盘)(5) Native words and Borrowed words(a) Native words: Anglo-Saxon words; amounting to roughly 5000-6000; mainst
19、ream of the basic word stockTwo features:Neutral in style; Native （common） Borrowed (formal)begin ( E ) commence ( F )brotherly ( E ) fraternal ( F ) kingly ( E ) regal ( F ) regal ( L )rise ( E ) mount ( F ) ascend ( L )Frequent in use(b) Borrowed wordsThe words are taken over from foreign language
20、s. “The English language has vast debts. In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.”(Encyclopedia American, 1980 Vol.10, p.423) ,Baugh (1978)talks of English vocabulary as “cosmopolitan vocabulary”.Loanwords（借词）: A process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight a
21、daptation, in some case, to the phonological system of the new language that they enterTea from Chinese; al freshco (in the open air)from ItalianLoanblend（混合借词）: A process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowedIn English, the first parts of the wo
22、rds “coconut” and “Chinatown” came from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts of the English origin.Loanshift（转移借词）: A process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.“Bridge” is an English word, but when it referes to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed f
23、rom the Latian “ponte”The English word “artificial satellite” is also a case of loanshift to counteract the Russian “sputnik”Loan translation(翻译借词): A process in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(a)Words translated according to the mean
24、ingMother tongue from lingua maternal (L)Black humour from humour noir (F)(b)Words translated according to the soundKulak from kyrak(Russ)Lama from lama(Tib)Denizens（同化词）: words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. e.g.Port from portus(L); cup from cuppa
25、L(L); pork from proc (F)Aliens(非同化词): Words that have retained their original pronunciation and spellingKowtow(CH); emir(Arab); intermezzo(IT); dcor(F); (8) Word ClassTraditional view: Noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, articleModern view:a. Particles: ge
26、t by(to continue ones way of life); do up(fasten);look back(to remember)b. Auxiliaries: Negation: I cant come Inversion: Is he coming?Code: Ill come and so will Bill?Emphasis: He has come.c. Pro-form (代替形式):Traditionally pronoun is the only word class that can function as a substitute for another it
27、em. In modern linguistics it refers to the closed sets of items that can be used to substitute for a nominal group or a single noun.Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes he ll win and I hopes so too.Pro-locative: James hiding th
28、ere, behind the door.d. Determiners: Words used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrasePredeterminer: all, both, half, double, twice, etc.Postdeterminer: last, next, past, other,etc.Central determiner: this , that, these, those, your, neither, etc.Order: Predeterminer+ Central determiner+ Po
29、stdeterminer5. Characteristics of Words(1). Stability: The constituent parts of a complex word have little potentials for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. DisappointmentDis+appoint+ment(2). Relative uninterruptibilityNew
30、 elements are not to be inserted into a word when there are several parts in a word.Chairman manchair but in the following The chairman looked at the audience.The audience looked at the chairman.(3). A minimal free formThe maximum free form (sentence) (Bloomfield)disagree(4) Stylistic features:6. In
31、formation of Words(1). Phonological informationBy the sequence of sounds that it is made up of , we know how to pronounce it. Desk(2). Morphological informationThe internal structure of a word, that is , how individual meaningful units are combined to form the word. Dislike(3) Syntactic informationH
32、ow to relate a certain word to the others in the sentence The word “roars” can be used in a sentence like “a lion roars”(4). Semantic informationA word has a meaning or several meanings:Stonea mall piece of rock（denotative meaning）a grape stone（extended meaning/a hard seed inside some fruits）She mus
33、t have a heart of stone.（Somebody who shows no pity or sympathy）(5). Pragmatic informationIf we put the word “cold” in different situations, it may convey different information depending upon the different contexts.a. Close the door.b. Put more clothes on.c. Turn on the air-conditiond. Leave here qu
34、ickly.e. Chapter Two Morpheme1. Morpheme and morphsMorphology: the study of the internal structure of the words and the rules by which the words are formed. e.g.Morpheme; the smallest meaningful segments in a language Unlike- Un+likeMorph: the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on
35、 the level of parole. e.g. Work-works, working, worked2. Morpheme Classification（1）Lexical and grammatical morphemesTo classify morphemes, let us begin by considering the following example.The dogs barked at Johns car.Broken down into morphemes, the sentence can be segmented as :the following:The +
36、dog + s + bark +ed + at +John +s +carGrouped into two types: Lexical morphemes: which have meaning such as dog, bark, car, and Grammatical morphemes: which have little or no meaning of their own, usually expressing grammatical concepts such as definiteness（the）, case（the Johns）,tense（-ed）, and plura
37、lity（dogs）.The classification can be generalized as:Lexical morphemes （ free）MorphemesGrammatical morphemes ( bound) Affix and baseAnother way to classify morphemes is to group them into affixes（or bound morphemes） and base/roots（or free morphemes）.InternationalizationNationthe central core of the w
38、ord, which is called the base or root.-al, -ize and ation are affixes, which are the grammatical morphemesRoot/Base formA root is the basic form of a word that can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity.Crystal 1985A “root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectiona
39、l and derivational affixes have been removed”Bauer 1983A morpheme which is the basic part of a word and which may , in many languages, occur on its own. Three cases:(a) Roots may be joined to other rootshouse + hold, class +mate(b) Roots may take affixesmanly, coldness(c) Roots may take combing form
40、sbiorhythmAffixes: A letter or sound, or group of letters, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word(a)To the beginning of the a word （a prefix）“unkind”(b)To the end of a word（suffix）“kindness”(c)within a word（infix）“foot/feet”.Stem: That part of a word to which
41、 an inflectional affix is or can be added(a) a simple stem consisting of only one morpheme（root）“work”(b) a root plus a derivational affix “work + er”(c)t wo or more roots “work + shop”friendships friendship friend stem rootworkworkerworkersworkworkshop-workshopsSuppletion: A type of irregularity in
42、 which there is a complete change in the shape of a word in its various inflected forms.Goodbetter bestTall-taller-tallest（2）Inflectional and derivationalAffixes may be inflectional or derivational, both being grammatical morphemes rather than lexical morphemes. Inflectional affixes express such fea
43、tures as plurality, case, tense, and aspect.There are eight inflectional morphemes in English and all the other affixes are derivational.(a) Noun inflectional suffixPlural marker s : boysPossessive marker s : Toms(b) Verb inflectional suffixes3th person singular present s : runspast tense marker ed
44、: waitedprogressive marker ing : speakingpast participle en : eaten(c) Adjective inflectional suffixescomparative marker er : faster superlative marker est :fastest（3）Free and Bound morphemesA free morpheme is one that can stand by itself as a word.Put, girl, cryA bound morpheme never occurs alone a
45、s a word and is always joined with other morphemes.De-, hood-, -edA summary of morpheme classification is schematized as follows:MorphemesLexical grammatical（free base） （bound affixes）content words function words inflectional derivational nouns conjunctions nounverbs articles verb prefixes infixes s
46、uffixes adjectives demonstratives adjectivesadverbs prepositionscomparatives3.FeaturesFeatures of morphology can be summed up in the following phonological, syntactic and semantic aspects:（1）Phonological FeaturesSome morphemes may have one sound as their phonetic representation, e.g. the adjective suffix /i/ in stuff or / a / in asymmetrical.