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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1What is word?1.What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded a
2、s the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2.What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units
3、 without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we dont want to sacrifice its meaning.3.What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alt
4、ernate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map maps, mouse mice, ox oxen, tooth teeth, etc.4.What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in
5、speech or writing.3.1.1Three senses of “word”1.A physically definable unit2.The common factor underlying a set of forms3.A grammatical unit3.1.2Identification of words1.StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a
6、 complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2.Relative uninterruptibil
7、ityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis app
8、oint ment.3.A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3Classification of words1.Variable an
9、d invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow follows following followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hell
10、o, etc. They have no inflective endings.2.Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. tho
11、se which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3.Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Ther
12、efore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4.Word classThis is close to the n
13、otion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1)Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” an
14、d the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2)Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3)Pro-forms: Pro-
15、forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4)Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phr
16、ase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2The formation of word3.2.1Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words
17、 are formed.3.2.2Types of morphemes1.Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2.Root, aff
18、ix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the b
19、ase form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root mor
20、pheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself,
21、 and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a ro
22、ot and a derivational affix.3.Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they
23、are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1)Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicat
24、e grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, Johns, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2)Inflectional affixes dont change the word class of the word they attach
25、to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3)Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they
26、 attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depe
27、nds on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4)In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, et
28、c.3.2.3Inflection and word formation1.InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2.Word for
29、mationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1)CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the wa
30、y to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal com
31、pound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V
32、+ A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2)DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.3.2.4The counterpoint of phonology a
33、nd morphology1.Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2.Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, the grammatical fa
34、ctors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also called morphonology or morphonemics.3.Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.4.Dissimilation: Dissi
35、milation refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.3.3Lexical change3.3.1Lexical change proper1.InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical item
36、s come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.2.BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two
37、 words.3.Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.4.AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5.Back-formationB
38、ack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.6.Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the con
39、jugation of some English verbs.7.BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.3.3.2Phonological change1.LossThe loss of sound c
40、an first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed words.2.AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3.MetathesisMetathesis is a pr
41、ocess involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.4.AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specific
42、ally called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.3.3.3Morpho-syntactical change1.Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2.Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4Semantic change1.BroadeningBroadening is a process
43、to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2.NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3.Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its
44、narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.4.Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as
45、zero-derivation, or conversion.5.Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.专心-专注-专业