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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上Chapter 1? 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普
2、通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）The study of how
3、morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of lang
4、uage with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories
5、to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3. Some important distinctions in li
6、nguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern lin
7、guistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some
8、point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken
9、form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communic
10、ation than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual
11、use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence
12、and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to disco
13、ver and specify the language rules. 4.What is language? 语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomskys definition is quite diffe
14、rent, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal syste
15、m of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary. Example: different sounds are used to re
16、fer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never
17、heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not presen
18、t, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead ha
19、ve to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology? 音系学1.? The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media use
20、d by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of great
21、er importance than that of writing. The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics
22、is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。 There are three branches of phonetics. They are:Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speakers point of view
23、. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves
24、. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.3.? Organs of speech 发音器官The pharyngeal cavity咽腔? the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔? the noseThe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavitie
25、s in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.Lying across the glottis (声门) are the vocal cords (声带). Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound. T
26、he tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.4.Orthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions语音的书写形式宽式和窄式音标IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad
27、 transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标).实例：对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：phit spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：spit对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：li:fFeel中l出现在
28、单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音l，在窄式音标中加变音符号II5.?Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类a)?Classification of English consonants英语辅音的分类按发音方式分Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k g Fricative 擦音：f v s z W T s V h Affricate 塞擦音：tFdVLiquid流音：l rNasal鼻音：
29、m n N Glide滑音：w j按发音部位分Bilabial双唇音：p b m w Labiodental唇齿音：f vDental齿音：W TAlveolar齿龈音：t d s z n l rPalatal硬腭音：VtFdViVelar软腭音：k g NGlottal声门音：hB) Classification of English vowels英语元音的分类按舌头在口中的位置分：Front vowel前元音：i: i e A a Central vowel中元音：: Q Back vowel后元音：u: u R: R a:按口形的大小分：Close vowel闭元音：i: i u: uS
30、emi-close vowel半闭元音：e :Open vowel开元音：A aSemi-open vowel半开元音： R: Q R a:按唇形是否为圆分Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：i: i e A a : Q a:rounded vowel圆唇元音：u: u R: R按语音的长短分Long vowel长元音i: :a: u: R:Short vowel短元音i e A a Q u R在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：ei ai u a u Ri i e u6.? Phonology 音系学Phonology and phonetics 音系学和语音学Both
31、 phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns an
32、d how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.语音学研究人类所有的语言。音系学研究某种特定语言的语音系统。Example:单词leap和peel中的l音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细
33、微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。7.? Phone, phoneme, and allophone 语音（音素）、音位、音位变体Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分，它并
34、不一定能区分意义。Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个
35、音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音（音素）。按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p/ /t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如p t.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。8.?Phonemic contrast, comp
36、lementary distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme. 相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位，它们
37、在意义上形成对立，如果是同一音位的变体，在意思上不形成对立。The former is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。The latter is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They
38、 only occur in different environments.互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体在语音组合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如top中的送气的p和stop中不送气的p。A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent diff
39、erent phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are sa
40、id to form a minimal pair.最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如pen和ben。9.? Some rules in phonology 几条音系规则A)? sequential rules 系列规则The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。重要的规则：I.?如果单词以l 或r 为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，
41、如rude, last, leapII.?如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p/t/k/，第三音位必定是/l/r/w/，如strict, splendid, springIII.?塞擦音tFdV和咝音s z F V 后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach变复数为teachesti:tFiz。IV.制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。B)?assimilation rules 同化规则The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a f
42、eature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。重要的规则：I.?元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如bean/ green 中的i:音。II.?在一个单词中，鼻音n所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct incorrect。III.?语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为n音同化成了m音。C)? deletion rules
43、 省略规则The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。重要的规则：I.? 如g音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的g音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中，g却要发音的。10.? Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation 超切分特征：重音、声调和语调Distinctive features can also
44、 be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它们时音节、
45、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。A)? Stress 重音重要的规则：I.一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。II.英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。B)?Tone 声调英语不是声调语言，这里不作研究。C)?Intonation 语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are co
46、llectively known as intonation.当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学Defini
47、tion定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。1.? Morpheme 语素The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。The meani