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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上第一章 词的概述 Chapter 1 . All the words belong to the native stock. 1. from Danish 2. from French 3. from German 4. from Latin 5. from Italian 6. from Spanish 7. from Arabic 8. from Chinese 9. from Russian 10. from Greek 英语参考资料 Chapter 1 A General Survey of a Word . Definition of a word Aris
2、totle defined a word as the smallest significant unit of speech - a definition which held sway until recently. Modern methods of analysis have discovered semantic units below the word level. A new term is therefore needed to denote the smallest significant element of speech; in contemporary linguist
3、ic theory it is known as a morpheme. Bloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms: free forms and bound forms. Free forms can stand by themselves and sometimes act as a complete utterance whereas bound forms cannot. For example, the word nicely contains the free form nice, and the
4、bound form -ly. The former can occur as an independent unit and even as a sentence (What about the other film? - Nice). But the suffix -ly cannot stand by itself, to say nothing of acting as a complete utterance. According to Bloomfield, a word is a minimal free form. Lexicology deals by definition
5、with words and wordforming morphemes, that is to say, with significant units. It follows that these elements must be investigated in their form and in their meaning. Therefore, from the lexicological point of view, a word is a combination of form (phonological) and meaning (lexical and grammatical).
6、 In addition, a word acts as a structural unit of a sentence. . Sound and meaning The Naturalists have argued that the origin of language lies in onomatopoeia, that people began talking by creating iconic signs to imitate the sounds heard around them in nature. They maintain that there is a natural
7、connection between sound and meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning have different phonological forms in different languages -
8、for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese ru. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite. . Meaning and concept Meaning is closely related to a concept. A concept is the base of the meaning of a word. A word is used to label a concept.
9、It acts as the symbol for that concept. The concept is abstracted from the person, thing, relationship, idea, event, and so on, that we are thinking about. We call this the referent. The word labels the concept, which is abstracted from the referent; the word denotes the referent, but does not label
10、 it. This approach to meaning can be diagrammed as follows: word - concept - referent The formula shows that the word refers to the referent through a concept. A concept is an abstraction from things of the same kind. When someone says chair to you, how do you know it is a chair? It is simply becaus
11、e it shows certain characteristics shared by all the objects you call chairs. You have abstracted these characteristics from your experience of chairs, and from what you have learned about chairs. From this it can be deduced that a concept refers to something in general, but not something in particu
12、lar. A word, however, can refer to both, as is shown in the following two sentences: .some have begun to realize that the automobile is a mixed blessing. The automobile was stalled in a snowstorm. The word automobile in the first sentence refers to something in general whereas the word in the second
13、 sentence refers to a specific one. There are two aspects to the meaning of a word: denotation and connotation. The process by which the word refers to the referent is called denotation. For example, the denotation of dog is canine quadruped. The denotative meaning of a word usually refers to the di
14、ctionary definition of a word. As opposed to denotation, connotation refers to the emotional aspect of a word. For example, the connotation of dog might include friend, helper, competition, etc. . Lexical item and vocabulary A unit of vocabulary is generally referred to as a lexical item. A complete
15、 inventory of the lexical items of a language constitutes that languages dictionary. In New Horizons in Linguistics, John Lyons points out that Lexical items are often referred to, loosely, as words. The term vocabulary usually refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language. But it may al
16、so refer to the words and phrases used in the variants of a language, such as dialect, register, terminology, etc. The vocabulary can be divided into active vocabulary and passive vocabulary: the former refers to lexical items which a person uses; the latter to words which he understands. The Englis
17、h vocabulary is characterized by a mixture of native words and borrowed words. Most of the native words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. They form the basic word stock of the English language. In the native stock we find words denoting the commonest things necessary for life, natural phenomena, divisions
18、of the year, parts of the body, animals, foodstuffs, trees, fruits, human activity and other words denoting the most indispensable things. The native stock also includes auxiliary and modal verbs, pronouns, most numerals, prepositions and conjunctions. Though small in number, these words play no sma
19、ll part in linguistic performance and communication. Borrowed words, usually known as loan-words, refer to linguistic forms taken over by one language or dialect from another. The English vocabulary has replenished itself by continually taking over words from other languages over the centuries. The
20、adoption of foreign words into the English language began even before the English came to England. The Germanic people, of which the Angles and Saxons formed a part, had long before this event been in contact with the civilization of Rome. Words of Latin origin denoting objects belonging to that civ
21、ilization (wine, butter, cheese, inch, mile, mint, etc.) gradually found their way into the English language. When the English were settled in England, they continued to borrow words from Latin, especially after Roman Christianity was introduced into the island in the sixth and seventh centuries. A
22、considerable number of Latin words, chiefly signifying things connected with religion or the services of the church, were adopted into the English language. Among those which are still part of the language are bishop, candle, creed, font, mass, monk, priest and a great many others. To the Danes and
23、Northmen the English vocabulary also owes a great deal. From these settlers, English adopted a surprising number of words of Scandinavian origin that belong to the core-vocabulary today: they (them, their), both, ill, die, egg, knife, low, skill, take, till, though, want, etc. The Norman Conquest in
24、 1066 introduced a large number of French words into the English vocabulary. French adoptions were found in almost every section of the vocabulary: law (justice, evidence, pardon.), warfare (conquer, victory, archer.), religion (grace, repent, sacrifice.), architecture (castle, pillar, tower.), fina
25、nce (pay, rent, ransom.), rank (baron, master, prince.), clothing (collar, mantle, vestment.), food (dinner, feast, sauce.) and many others. As an indication of the tremendous influx of French words, we may note that, discounting proper names, there are 39 words of French origin in the first 43 line
26、s of the Prologue to Chaucers Canterbury Tales. The revival of art and literature based on ancient Greek learning, known as the Renaissance in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, opened up a new source from which the English vocabulary could be enriched. English has borrowed many words from Greek thr
27、ough the medium of Latin and a smaller number direct, such as rhapsody, crisis, topic, pathos, stigma, coma, tonic, cosmos, dogma. From Greek also comes a wide range of learned affixes, such as bio-, chrono-, geo-, hydro-, logo-, auto-, hemi-, hetero-, homo-, mono-, neo-, epi-, meta-, para-, -ism, -
28、ise, -logy, -graph, -phile, -meter, -gram and many others. From the sixteenth century onward, there was a great increase in the number of languages from which English adopted words. French continued to provide a considerable number of new words, for example, trophy, vase, moustache, unique, attic, s
29、oup. The Italian element was particularly strong in the fields of art, music and literature, for example, model, sonnet, opera, vista, soprano, quartet. There was also a Spanish element in English, for example, sherry, potato, cargo, parade, cigar. German, Portuguese and Dutch were also fertile sour
30、ces of loan words, for example, dock, carouse, plunder, zinc, quarts (German); flamingo, cobra, caste, buffallo, pagoda (Portuguses); booze, wainscot, tackle, buoy, skipper, dock (Dutch). At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with a growth of international trade and the urge to colonize and do
31、minate the unknown world, English made a number of direct adoptions from languages spoken outside Europe. Some examples are: sultan, sheikh, ghoul, roc (Arabic); boomerang, billabong, wombat, dingo (Australian); lichi, sampan, typhoon, ketchup (Chinese); shibboleth, kibbutz (Hebrew); schmozze, schma
32、ltz (Yiddish); shah, divan, shawl, caravan (Persian); caften, yoghourt, kiosk, bosh (Turkish); bwana, safari (Swahili); hara-kiri. tycoon, kamikaze, judo (Japanese); guru, pundit, swami, pukka (Hindustani); proa, amok, raffia, sarong (Indonesian); rouble, czar, troika, commissar (Russian). Since the
33、 end of the Second World War, still more loanwords have been incorporated into the English vocabulary, for example, haute cuisine, discotheque, engag (French), sushi (Japanese); gulag, apparatchik (Russian); mao tai (Chinese); favela (Portuguese); autostrada (Italian); autopista (Spanish); hamam (Ar
34、abic) and many others. In the present century it should be observed that English has created many words out of Latin and Greek elements, especially in the fields of science and technology, such as aerodyne, ambivert, androgen, antibiotic, astronaut, auto-visual, autolysis, barysphere, cacogenics, ca
35、llipyous, chromosome, cartology, cryotron, cyclorama, dendrochronology, dromophobia, hypnotherapy, hypothermia, isotope. Because the lexical sources of Latin and Greek are treated as if they belonged to English, many neologisms combine elements from different sources: aqualung, television, microgroo
36、ve, sonobuoy, etc. Although all these Latin-and Greek-derived words are distinctly learned or technical, they do not seem foreign, and are very different in this respect from the recent loanwords from living languages, such as montage, angst, cappuccino, sputnik, etc. Thus, for the Modern English pe
37、riod a distinction must be made between the adoptions from living languages and the formations derived from the two classical languages. 第二章 词的结构和词的构成方式 练习答案Chapter 2: astir = in motion; in excited activity awhir = whirring anti-Marketeer = an opponent of Great Britains entry into the European Commo
38、n Market anti-theatre = the theatre that lacks most of the traditional features of the theatre deplane = get out of an airplane after it lands denationalize = deprive.of national rights or status disambiguate = rid.of ambiguity disadapt = make.unable to adapt ecocide = the destruction of the earths
39、ecology through the uncontrolled use of pollutants ecocatastrophe = a catastrophe (a large-scale disaster) resulting from the uncontrolled use of pollutants megajet = a jet airplane larger and faster than a jumbo jet (a jet airplane with a passenger capacity of about 500 people and a freight capacit
40、y of about 200 tons) mini-budget = temporary budget non-committed = not revealing ones position nonnovel = lacking the usual characteristics of a conventional novel outsmart = overcome by cunning or cleverness outheadline = outshine.by making the headlines supersecret = top-secret supertax = an addi
41、tional tax. cinerama = a form of cinema film projected on a wide-curved screen circusama = a large-scale show of acrobats, trained animals, clowns meritocrat = a member of a ruling class in society consisting of those who are most talented or have the highest intellect Eurocrat = a staff member of t
42、he administrative commission of the European Common Market interviewee = a person who is interviewed conferee = a person who participates in a conference escapee = a person who has escaped blackmailee = a person who is blackmailed racketeer = a person who obtains money illegally rocketeer = an exper
43、t in rocketry second-guesser = a person who uses hindsight in criticizing or advising someone topsider = a top-ranking person anchormanese = a style of language or diction used by an anchorman (a newscaster who coordinates the reports broadcast from various sources; a moderator of a discussion group
44、 as onradio or television) engineerese = the sublanguage used by engineers and technicians Johnsonese = a style of language used by Johnson cablese = a style of language peculiar to a telegram smoketeria = a cigarette, cigar and pipe store roadeteria = roadside restaurant Chomskian = Chomskys Woolfi
45、an = a style of language used by Virginia Woolf hawkish = warlike narrowish = somewhat narrow consumerism = an economic policy that emphasizes consumption, the theory or practice of protecting consumers interests nuclearism = emphasis on nuclear weapons as a deterrent to war or as a means of attaini
46、ng political and social goals golfitis = addiction to or preoccupation with golf professoritis = obsession with the idea of becoming a professor beatnik = one of the Beat Generation (-nik meaning a person who does or is connected with something) protestnik = a person who protests against conventions
47、 and traditional values dopester = a person who analyses or predicts trends as in politics or sports huckster = a person who is engaged in advertising, esp. for radio and television figurewise = in terms of figures weatherwise = in terms of weather, skilled in predicting weather. soap suds = suds produced by soap mosquito net = net used for protection against mosquitoes fire squad = squad which prevents the spread of a fire fertility site = site which induces fertility influenza virus = virus which causes influenza battle fatigue = fatigue caused by a battle