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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上Civil engineeringCivil engineering is a discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like , , , , and . Civil engineering is the oldest discipline after , and it was defined to distinguish non-milit
2、ary engineering from military engineering. It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including , , , , , , , , , and . Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners
3、through to international companies.History of the civil engineering professionSee also: Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in and (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to
4、 abandon a existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, became increasingly important leading to the development of the and .Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and , and the term engineer and were mainly geographical varia
5、tions referring to the same person, often used interchangeably. The construction of in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the by in (447-438 BC), the by (c. 312 BC), the b
6、y General under orders from Chin Emperor (c. 220 BC) and the stupas constructed in ancient like the and the extensive irrigation works in . The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially , , , bridges, dams and roads.In the 18th century, the term civil engineerin
7、g was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was who constructed the . In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally
8、over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in , and in 1820 the eminent engineer became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising
9、civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads
10、, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of ma
11、chinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman
12、 was granted by to in 1905. History of civil engineeringCivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of and throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several
13、separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of , materials science, , , , , , and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by , such as and , rising to the role of . Knowledge was retained in and seld
14、om supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of in the 3rd century BC, incl
15、uding Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of , and practical solutions such as . , an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.Civil engineers typically possess an with a major in civil engin
16、eering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a , though some universities designate the degree as a . The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, , and specific topics in civil engineering. Initi
17、ally such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree. While an Undergraduate (BEng/BSc) Degree will normally provide successful students with industry accredited qualifica
18、tion, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards (MEng/MSc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within engineering.In most countries, a Bachelors degree in engineering represents the first step towards and the degree program itself is certifie
19、d by a . After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and ), (in most
20、 countries), (in and ), or (in much of the ). There are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United St
21、ates and Canada only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients. This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Engineers Act. In other
22、 countries, no such legislation exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of . Practically all certifying bodies maintain a that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion. In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical stan
23、dards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to . In cases where an engineers work fails he or she may be subject to the and, in extreme cases, the charge of . An engineers work must also comply with numerous other
24、rules and regulations such as and legislation pertaining to .CareersThere is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most people who graduate with civil engineering degrees start with jobs that require a low level of responsibility, and as the new engineers prove their competence, they are t
25、rusted with tasks that have larger consequences and require a higher level of responsibility. However, within each branch of civil engineering career path options vary. In some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the eyes
26、 and ears of senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers perform the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. Experienced engineers generally do more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other en
27、gineers, or into specialized consulting, including .In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within
28、 their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, , water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General
29、 civil engineering is also referred to as , a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engi
30、neering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction翻译：土木工程土木工程是一个专业的工程学科，包括设计，施工和维护与环境的改造，涉及了像桥梁，道路，河渠，堤坝和建筑物工程交易土木工程是最古老的军事工程后，工程学科，它被定义为区分军事工程非军事工程的学科它传统分解成若干子学科包括环境工程，岩土工程，结构工程，交通工程，市或城市工程，水资源工程，材料工程，海岸工程，勘测
31、和施工工程等土木工程的范围涉及所有层次：从市政府到国家，从私人部门到国际公司。历史土木工程专业自从有了人类，土木工程便进入到了我们的日常生活。土木工程最早的追溯在公元前2000年至4000的古埃及和美索不达米亚（古伊拉克）。当人们开始放弃了游牧的存在，从而造成了对栖身地的需要和。在此期间，交通变得越来越重要，导致车轮和帆船的发展。直到近代也不存在土木工程与建筑明显的区别，以及长期工程师和建筑师，主要指的是同一个人，通常可以互换使用。在埃及建造金字塔（公元前大约二七零零年至2500年）可能被视为第一个大型结构建筑实例。其他古代历史土木工程建设包括古代希腊帕台农神庙的Iktinos（447-438
32、年），由罗马工程师亚壁古道（公元前312年）设计，再如由秦始皇下令，蒙恬将军负责建造的中国长城。以及古代斯里兰卡建造像Jetavanaramaya和广泛的灌溉佛塔工程阿努拉德普勒。罗马帝国在其整个开发土木结构，特别是包括渡槽，insulae，港口，桥梁，堤坝和道路。在18世纪，这个词土木工程是杜撰把所有的东西平民而不是军事工程5第一个自称约翰Smeaton土木工程师是修建了埃迪斯通灯塔Smeaton 1771年和他的一些同事形成了土木Smeatonian学会，他们是在吃饭时结识的。虽然有一些技术会议的证据，它只不过是一个社会的社会。1818年英国土木工程师学会成立于伦敦，并在1820年著名的工
33、程师托马斯德福成为它的第一位会长。该机构在1828年获得皇家宪章，正式承认作为一个专业的土木工程。其章程规定民用建筑工程为：利用自然使人方便，作为生产和贩运国家都对外部和内部的贸易，如道路，桥梁，沟渠，运河的建设应用，手段，艺术，内河航运和码头内部往来和交流，并在港口，码头，鼹鼠，防波堤和灯塔的建设，并在航行为商业目的人工力量的艺术，在建筑和机械的应用，而在城市和城镇排水第一个民办高校任教的美国诺威治大学土木工程是在1819年由船长奥尔登鹧鸪。9在土木工程中的美国第一学位是由伦斯勒理工学院于1835年颁发。第一个这样的荣誉，被美国康奈尔大学在1905年和诺拉斯坦顿布拉奇颁发给一名女子。土木工程
34、历史土木工程是物理和科学原理的应用，它的历史是错综复杂的联系，在整个历史上的物理学和数学的认识的进步。由于土木工程是一个广泛的行业，包括几个独立的专门的子学科，它的历史与知识结构，材料科学，地理，地质，土壤，水文，环境，机械等领域。纵观历史上最古老的和中世纪的建筑设计和施工进行了如石匠和木匠手艺，上升到建筑师的作用。知识被保留在很少的行会，进步甚微。构筑物，道路和基础设施的存在是重复的，并在规模上升的增量对科学的态度，以物理和数学问题，适用于民用建筑工程的最早的例子之一是在公元前3世纪阿基米德的工作，包括阿基米德的原则，这巩固了我们的浮力的认识，如阿基米德螺旋切实可行的解决方案。 Brahma
35、gupta，印度数学家，用在公元7世纪的算术，对印度教阿拉伯数字基础的开挖（体积）计算， 土木工程师通常拥有一个在民用工程专业学位。该研究为这种程度的长度通常是三至五年，并已完成的程度，通常作为指定的工学学士，虽然一些大学指定为理学学士的学位。程度一般包括单位覆盖物理，数学，项目管理，设计和土木工程的特定主题。最初等议题涵盖了大多数，如果不是全部，土木工程的子学科。学生然后选择一个或多个分学科专业走向结束的程度，而本科（学士/理学士）学位，通常会提供业界认可的资格成功的学生，一些大学提供研究生工程奖（孟/ MSC），使学生进一步在其感兴趣的特定领域内的工程专业在大多数国家，学士学位的工程学士学
36、位代表对专业认证的第一步和学位课程本身是由专业机构认证。在完成学位课程认证工程师认证之前，必须满足一定要求的范围（包括工作经验和考试要求）。一旦认证，工程师指定的专业工程师（在美国，加拿大和南非），英国特许工程师（在大多数英联邦国家），特许专业工程师（在澳大利亚和新西兰），或欧洲工程师称号（在多欧洲联盟）。有相关专业机构之间的国际工程其目的是为了让工程师执业跨越国际边界的协定。认证的优势在不同的位置而有所不同。例如，在美国和加拿大的“只有持牌工程师可能准备，签署和盖章，并提交工程计划和图纸到审批公权力，或密封的公共和私人客户工程工作。”这要求强制执行国家和省，如魁北克的工程师法在其他国家，没有
37、这样的法律存在立法。在澳大利亚，国家的工程师授权仅限于昆士兰州。几乎所有的认证机构保持的道德规范，他们希望所有成员遵守这样，这些组织在维护职业道德标准的重要作用。即使在司法管辖区认证，很少或没有工作的法律关系，工程师受合同法。在这种情况下，一个工程师的工作失败，他或她可能受到过失侵权和在极端情况下，刑事过失负责。一个工程师的工作，还必须符合其他许多规则，如建筑法规规章和法律有关的环境法。工作机会没有一个典型的土木工程师的职业道路。大多数人谁土木工程学位与研究生开始与岗位需要的责任水平低，并作为新的工程师证明自己的能力，它们与任务有较大的影响，需要更高层次的责任信任。但是在每一个土木工程的职业道
38、路的选择分支，因人而异。在一些领域和企业，入门级的工程师都投入到工作主要是在现场监督施工，而在另一些领域，入门级工程师进行分析比较常规任务或设计和解释。经验丰富的工程师一般都从事比较复杂的分析或设计工作，或更复杂的设计项目，或其他工程师的经营管理，或到专门的咨询服务，包括法医工程。分学科一般来说，土木工程关注的是人类创造的固定项目，更大的世界整体界面。一般民用工程师与专业土木工程师和测量师紧密合作，以适应和服务于他们的特定的网站，社区和地形通过设计分级，排水，路面，供水，污水处理服务，电力供应和通讯，土地部门的固定项目。一般工程师花了很多时间，参观项目现场，发展社会的共识，并准备建设规划。一般民用工程也被称为网站工程，土木工程的分支，主要转换从一个使用的土地系到另一个重点。土木工程师通常适用于岩土工程，结构工程，环境工程，交通工程和建设工程的原则，住宅，商业，工业及公共工程的各种规模和水平的建设项目。专心-专注-专业