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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上Unit 1一：.Important distinction in linguistics 1:prescriptive and descriptive (规范性和描述性）If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use , it is said to be descriptive.(be in or actually)If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and st
2、andard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.(should be) 2:synchronic and diachronic (共识的和历时的）synchronic is the description of a language at some point of time in history.diachronic is the description of language as it changes through time.3.speech and writing Modern linguistics
3、 regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons.4.langue and parole (语言和言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.5. Compe
4、tence and performance （语言的能力和表现）competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language ;performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6.traditional grammar and modern linguistics (传统语法和现代语言学）二.Design features of language l arbitrariness(任意性）：it mea
5、ns there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds.l productivity（生产性）:language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.l duality（双重性）：language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure of levels.l displa
6、cement(替代性）：language can be used to refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.l cultural transmission（文化传递): it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning.Unit 2（重点）一：the speech organs lips,teeth,teeth ridge,hard palate,soft palate,uvula,
7、tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back of tongue(most flexible),vocal cords,pharyngeal cavity,nasal cavity 二.phone，phoneme and allophone（音素，音位和音位变体）Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value, and it is a abstract unit.抽象的概念Allophones is d
8、ifferent phones represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments .三.phonemic contrast,complementary distribution and minimal pair (音位的对立，互补的分布，最小对位）If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.If they are allophones of the same phoneme,they do not distinguish
9、 meaning but complement each other in distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.3.Morphology形态学Morpheme: the smallest unit of language that
10、carriers information about meaning or function.Morph:when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morphFree morpheme:可单独存在有实际意义boy/read Bound morpheme:必须与其他连用 -s.-erDerivational morpheme:改变词意nadj Inflectional morpheme:不改变词性改变时态-edCompounds 合
11、成词3. Syntax 句法Phrase structure rule:NP, VP, APadjective phrase, PPprepositional phraseXP rule: XP(specifier)X(complement) X represent the head N,V,A,P and P represent complementPhrase elements:a. Specifiers-determiner, qualifier, degree wordsb. Complements-provide information about entities and loca
12、tions whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.c. Modifiers修饰语5.Semantics语义学meaningThe naming theory命名论(proposed by Greek scholar Plato): the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for, but this theory seems applicable to nouns only and abstract notion, suc
13、h as joy and impulse, can not be named. The conceptualist view概念论: linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind and can name the abstract notion semantic triangle/ triangle of significance语意三角(suggested by Ogden and Richards) Contextualism语境(J.R.Firth): meaning should be studied in terms of
14、situation, use, context-elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism行为主义(by Bloomfield): situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.Lexical meaning(词汇意义):a. Sense and referencesense意义: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic fo
15、rm, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized可以脱离语境./reference所指: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience客观事实存在) b.major sense relations
16、:synonymy近义词dialectal synonyms方言同义词-used in different regional dialects e.g.British English(autumn)&American English(fall)/stylistic synonyms语言的文体同义词，正式程度不同-differing in style e.g.dad, father/synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感态度不同e.g.collaborator, accomplice/collocational
17、synonyms搭配不同e.g.accuse, accuse.of/semantically different synonyms语义不同e.g.amaze, astoundpolysemy多义词:have more than one meaninghomonymy同音异义词hyponymy下义词e.g. superordinate上义-general meaning(animal)/hyponyms下义-specific words(dog, cat)antonymy反义词gradable antonyms等级反义词e.g.middle-aged, elderly/complementary
18、 antonyms互补反义词e.g.male,female/relational opposites关系反义词e.g.patient,doctor句与句之间的关系:synonymous同义/inconsistent自相矛盾/entails or entailment上下义，一个句子意思包含另一个句子/presupposes or prerequisite预设前途/contradiction一句话前后自相矛盾/semantically anomalous语义异常Analysis of meaning:ponential analysis成分分析a way to analyze lexical m
19、eaning:this approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. e.g.father=+human+adult+animate+male/b.predication analysis述谓分析a way to analyze sentence meaning:predicate谓词+argument论源(除动词以外的)6. Pragmatics语用学Definition:it is
20、 a study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics VS.Semantics:difference-whether in the study of meaning the context of use is consideredContext: it determines the speakers use of language and also the hearers interpretation of what is said to him. T
21、he notion of context is first noted by the British linguist John Firth in 1930s, and constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Speech act theory:a.Austins model of speech acts:made a distinctionconstatives陈述-were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifia
22、ble/performatives表达-were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable three acts: locutionary act言内行为(本身意义literal meaning), illocutionary act言外(弦外之意expressthe speakers intention), perlocutionary act言后(带来的后果resulting from saying something)b.Searles classification o
23、f speech acts:when people are speaking a language, they are doing sth, or performing acts; and the process of linguistic communication consists of a sequence of acts. Illocytionary point:representatives/assertives阐述 directives指令 commissives承诺 expressives表达 declarations声明宣告c.Indirect speech acts: pri
24、mary speech act-the speakers goal of communication secondary speech-the means by which he achieves his goalsPrinciple of conversation会话原则by Grice: conventional implicature规约含义(是一个群体的规范惯例， 说话时大家都能理解)/particularized conversational implicature特殊会话含义(当新的信息出现，寻找特殊会话含义)Cooperative Principle(CP)by Grice:Th
25、e maxim of quantity数量原则:make your contribution as informative as required/do not make your contribution more informative than is requiredThe maxim of quality质量原则: do not say what you believe to be false/ do not say that for which you lack adequate evidenceThe maxim of relation关系原则:be relevantThe max
26、im of manner方式原则:avoid obscurity of expression/ avoid ambiguity/ be brief/ be orderly Chapter7 Language ChangeLexical and semantic change:词汇和语义变化l Addition of new words1) Coinage新造字及词语（Kodak）2) Clipped words省略词（gym-gymnasium）3) Blending合成词（smog=smoke+fog）4) Acronyms首字母缩写（CEO=chief executive officer）
27、5) Back-formation逆构词（to donate-derived from donation）6) Functional shift词性转变7) Borrowing借用（外来语）l Loss of words（beseem-to be suitable）l Semantic changes1) Semantic broadening词义变宽（holiday）2) Semantic narrowing词义变窄（meat）3) Semantic shift词义变化（lust）The causes of language changel The rapid development of
28、science and technologyl Social and political changes and political needsl Women have taken up activities l The way children acquire a languagel “Economy of memory”which results in grammar simplificationChapter8 Language and SocietyThree types of speech variety:话语群体共同体Regional dialects, sociolects, r
29、egistersVarieties of language语言变体l Dialectal varieties1) Regional dialect方言变体2) Sociolect社会方言3) Language and gender4) Language and age5) Idiolect个人习语6) Ethnic dialect种族方言l Register语域Hallidays register theory:The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register
30、.分类：field of discourse语域、语场 tenor of discourse 语旨 mode of discourse 语式Eg: a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific Tenor: teacher-students(formal-polite) Mode: oral(academic lecturing)Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity
31、.Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication.Pidgin and Creole洋泾浜语和克里奥尔语A pidgin is a special l
32、anguage variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is
33、said to have become a creole. Bilingualism and diglossia双语（类别）和双言（体裁）Two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes, this constitutes the situation of bilingualism.Diglossia: in a diglossic situation two varieti
34、es of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.Chapter9 Language and CultureThe relationship between language and cultureLanguage symbolizes cultural reality.Diachronically, any culture has its focus on how the social group represents itself, i
35、ts technological achievements, monuments and works of art; synchronically, its historical identity is recorded and passed down by the pop culture.Culture also affects a discourse communitys imagination, or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their behavior and life
36、.The relation of language and culture is that of part to whole.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters peoples perception and the way the categorize their experiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now known as SWH.Three forms of culture contact are iden
37、tified: acculturation, assimilation, and amalgamation.Acculturation is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one groups cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of th
38、e former.文化适应，外来文化有力量，自己适应外来的。Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society. 同化，吸收，自己文化强，外来的适应自己的。Amalgamation occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the el
39、imination or absorption of one group by another.融合，混合，两个文化势力相当。Culture overlap between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.Culture imperialism（文化入侵）,owing to linguistic imperialism which is a kind of linguicism-the promulgation of global
40、 ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.#小孩的言语习得1.行为主义a behaviorist view of language acquisition:语言是模仿，反复强化得到的（这一理论解释不了我们的创造力）language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation2.天生主义an innatist view of language acquisition:Chomsky proposed that human beings are
41、 born with an innate ability known as Language acquisition device(LAD)3.互动主义an interactionist view of language acquisition : language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.#关键时期假说 critical period hypothesis(
42、举例：狼孩）LAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time, a specific and limited time period for language acquisition, which is referred to the critical period hypothesis(CPH)#母语习得和第二外语习得的关系1.relationship:the studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those
43、 on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and practical levels. The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning.2.interlanguage中介语：母语和外语之间的语言我们所使用的会出现错误的语言an abstract system of learners target language system
44、and it has now been abstract system of learns language system and it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce,especially the wrong or not idiomatic onesInput Hyothesis输入假说(by Krashen)-the learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensive input”, Krashen defines it as “i+1” #neurolinguistics神经语言学含义：is the study of two related areas:language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language.#psycholinguistics心理语言学含义：is the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language专心-专注-专业