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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上第2章 名 词 1. 名词的分类 1) 名词分类的标准 名词是表示一个对象的名称的词。可以用不同的标准对名词进行分类。根据其构成形式,可以分出简单名词、复合名词和派生名词;根据所指对象的性质,可以分为专有名词(proper noun)和普通名词(common noun)。专有名词是某一特定的人、地方、机构等的名称。普通名词是某一类人、事物或概念的名称。普通名词又可分为个体名词、集体名词、物质名词、抽象名词。根据语法性质,名词可分为可数和不可数,例如water是不可数名词,book是可数名词。就形式特征说,名词可以是复数和单数的,water和book都是单数名词,而wa
2、ters和books是复数名词。 2) 各类名词的定义 根据名词的意义,名词分为: (1) 专有名词(proper noun):特定的人、地方、机构等的名称。 (2) 普通名词(common noun):一类人、事物或概念所共有的名称。 个体名词(individual noun):一类人或事物中的独立个体的名称。 集体名词(collective noun):由多个个体组成的一个集体的名称。 物质名词(material noun):无法分为个体的物质的名称。 抽象名词(abstract noun):无实体的事物的名称。 根据名词的数量特征,名词可分为: (1) 可数名词(countable no
3、un):可以用数目来计算的对象的名称,包括个体名词和集体名词。 (2) 不可数名词(uncountable noun):无法用数目来计算的对象的名称,包括物质名词和抽象名词。 区分可数与不可数非常重要,因为名词单复数形式的使用、冠词的使用以及数量词的使用等都要涉及到名词的可数与不可数性质。 3) 使用名词应注意的一些问题 (1) 名词的跨类 一个名词能表达多种含义,它的类别要根据其表达的意义来确定,如glass表示玻璃时是物质名词,当其表示玻璃杯时它是个体名词,再如youth,当其表示青春时是抽象名词,而当其表示青年人时是个体名词。可数与不可数也要根据其在具体的上下文中表达的意义来确定,下面句
4、子中的tea和room在一个句子中是不可数的,而在另一个中是可数的: In Britain tea is usually drunk with milk and sugar in it. There are teas both with and without caffeine. I live in a big room. There is much room for creation. (2) 在划分名词的类别时注意不同语言对同一词语的不同理解 不同的语言对同样意义的词在分类上也有不同的态度,英语的news,furniture等被视为不可数,而在汉语中新闻和家具被视为可数的。因此在使用英语时
5、要按英语的规则去使用这些词,不可根据汉语的习惯。英语中还有一些意义相近但性质不同,如poem/poetry, machine/machinery, garment/clothing, job/work, laugh/laughter等,前者是可数名词,后者是不可数名词。 (3) 可数与不可数的理解 可数与不可数有两重意义:语义的和语法的。 在对名词进行分类的时候,主要是从语义的角度分出可数和不可数名词,在讨论名词的数的时候才从语法的角度来讨论可数与不可数,主要是视其是单数还是复数形式。这两者有联系,但决不是一回事,不能混为一谈。 传统上一般说个体名词和集体名词是可数的,物质名词和抽象名词是不可
6、数的,这是不准确的,因为个体名词和集体名词就语义而言也有表示抽象对象的,然而它们是可数的。张道真(2002)就说个体名词也可指抽象的东西,如: Shell stay here for a week. He gave her an account of his progress. 抽象名词在不改变抽象性质的前提下也可以有复数形式(章振邦,1981): He was poor and troubled by the cares of a large family. The army has had several successes recently. L. G. Alexander (1988)
7、也在可数与不可数类的名词里分别给出了具体和抽象名词。在可数名词里给出了具体的a book和抽象的an idea,在不可数里给出了具体的clothing和抽象的courage。 像下面例句中的黑体词很难说是指非常具体的对象: The data are all ready for examination. The public has a right to know whats in the report. The press was not allowed to attend the trial. (4) 注意同一个词作可数与不可数用时的区别 单个的个体还是一种物质 He ate a whole
8、 chicken. / Would you like some chicken? 物体还是材料 Would you like an ice? / Ice float. 种类还是物质 This region produces an excellent wine. / He likes wine. 具体的还是概括的对象 A good education is expensive. / Education should be free. 2. 名词的作用 1) 名词可以充当除谓语动词之外的任何成分 (1) 主语 Wind is something we can see but we can feel
9、. (2) 宾语 I saw a man when I entered the room. He came across the street to meet his old friend. He gave the girls a bunch of flowers on February 14. I asked the teacher a few questions when I met him last time. (3) 表语 He is indeed a good student. (4) 补语 We made him our leader when we were children.
10、They were forced to work twelve hours a day when they worked on that farm. (5) 定语 Workers should rely on trade union to ensure their welfare. (6) 状语 They work long hours everyday. (7) 同位语 My friend, a singer, came to see me yesterday. (8) 独立成分 Comrade Wang, please come in. 2) 名词充当句子成分时应注意的问题 (1) 作定语
11、 当用名词作定语时,应特别注意两个问题,一是用名词的单数还是复数形式,二是同根词的名词形式和形容词形式作定语时的区别。 单数还是复数 名词作定语时一般都是单数形式。例如: paper tiger, cotton clothes, head chief, tape recorder, income tax 传统上能用复数的情况有以下一些。 A. 一般用复数的名词 backstairs deal(秘密交易), scissors grinder(磨刀匠) B. 只有复数的名词 goods-train(货车), dice-play(掷骰子) C. 单复数意义不同的名词 clothes brush(衣刷
12、), customs officer(海关官员) D. 单复数会引起误解的名词 seconds hand秒针/ second hand二手货 plains people平原人/ plain people平常人 E. 合成名词 two-thirds majority, equal terms policy 现在,只要不引起歧义,用复数名词作定语的情况越来越多。例如: the chemicals industry / the chemical industry a cars problem / the car graveyard the London docks strike / the Lond
13、on dock strike a disputes committee / a dispute committee elections campaign / election campaign enquires office / enquiry office 同根名词与形容词的区别 一般地讲,名词作定语主要用于名词所指内容与所修饰词具有某种关系,而形容词作定语则是对所修饰词起描绘的作用: gold reserve/golden sunshine peace talk/peaceful construction stone bridge/stony heart rose garden/rosy
14、cheeks (2) 作状语 当一个动词后面跟一个名词的时候,这个名词可能是宾语,也可能是状语。如果是及物动词,它当然是宾语;如果是不及物动词,它就可能是状语,也可能是主语的补语(有人称为双谓语)。 He works long hours. They walked 100 li a day on our forced match. This luggage weighs 20 kilograms. The Panda transistor radio cost me one hundred yuan. 在现代英语中,省略介词的现象越来越多,用名词作状语的情况也就越来越多。 The discus
15、sion has been in progress (for) five hours. The first negotiation took place (on) Saturday night. We arrived about (at) three oclock. Pauls baggage was sent (by) express. (3) 作主语补语(双谓语) 下面句子中的划线部分被认为是主语的补语: I hope we can part friends. Jim went away quite a child and returned a grown man. 说它们是主语的补语或复
16、合宾语,因为它们的作用接近表语,说明主语的状态或特征;说它们是双谓语,因为它们包含两个谓语,在深层结构里相当于两个谓语动词。例如: He went to England a child and came back a well-known writer. =He was a child when he went to England and he was a well-known writer when he came back. 3名词的数 1) 名词数的概念 名词的数有两层含义,一是语义上的,一是语法上的。从语义上说,当一个名词的所指对象不可能用数目去计算时它是不可数名词,如water,
17、news, happiness等,如果可以用数目去计算,它就是可数名词,如book, computer, table等。从语法上说,一个名词可以是单数的,也可以是复数的。语义和语法上的数概念有时有密切的关系,有时没有联系。one book和two books分别表示单复数意义而且具有单复数形式,而snow和snows从意义上说都是不可数的性质,但从形式上说前者是单数后者是复数,再如idea, opinion, truth,从意义上说都不可数的,但形式上可有复数。在讨论名词的数时一般指语法上的数的概念。 2) 名词复数的构成及发音 (1) 一般规则 一般的加s:cat cats, tubs;以-
18、z, -s, -x, -ch, -sh结尾的加es:buzz buzzes, class classes, box boxes, watch watches, bush bushes;辅音加y的变y为i再加es:country countries;元音加y的或专有名词,直接加s:day days;以y结尾的专有名词加s:Fry the Frys。其发音规律为:不管是s还是es,只要其前的发音是/ f, p, k, t, /就读/s/,是/z, ?, s, ?, ?, ks/时读/iz/,其他情况下读/z/。 /s/: chiefs, cakes, drops, pets /iz/: mazes
19、, bridges, buses, bushes, matches, boxes /z/: tubs, friends, bags, bells, arms, lessons, songs, chairs, eyes 以-th结尾的名词加-s后的读音比较复杂。当/前为长元音时后面的s读成/ z /且前面的 / 变成 /?,如:baths, mouths, oaths, paths, wreaths, youths;若是短元音就读成 /s/ 如:months, moths, berths。当然也有两种发音都可以的:oaths sheaths, truths等。 (2) 以-f / -fe结尾的词
20、 calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf变-f或-fe为ves:calves, elves, halves, knives, leaves, lives, loaves, selves, sheaves, shelves, thieves, wives, wolves,发音为/vz/。 有几个以-f结尾的词有两种复数形式:dwarf (dwarfs , dwarves); hoof (hoofs , hooves); scarf (scarfs , scarves); wha
21、rf (wharfs, wharves)。 handkerchief (handkerchiefs)和roof (roofs)有两个发音:/ fs / 或/ vs /。 (3) 以-o结尾的词 一般以-es构成复数,如echo, hero, potato, tomato等;也有一些可用-es或-s构成复数,如buffalo, cargo, commando, grotto, halo, mosquito, tornado, volcano;-o前为元音的、有两个o的、缩略词、意大利音乐术语、专有名词只加-s:folios, bamboos, kilos, concertos, Eskimos。
22、 (4) 改变元音 man men,foot feet, goose geese, louse lice, mouse mice, tooth teeth, woman women等。当man和woman作为合成词的组成部分时,-man和men都发成/m?n/。 (5) -en结尾 以-en结尾:ox oxen, brother brethren (用于宗教场合,brothers用于一般的场合), child children。 (6) penny在指单个的硬币时用pennies,指总量或与具体数量一起使用时用pence: He had a number of coins in his poc
23、ket, but no pennies. It will only cost a few pence. (7) 单复数不变 动物名称 一些动物名称:deer, grouse, mackerel, plaice, salmon, sheep, trout等。Fish的复数,既可用fish,也可用fishes,特别是在指种类时。比较: My goldfish has died. (one) My goldfish have died. (more than one) Youll see many kinds of fish (es) in the fish market. craft等 craft
24、及其复合词aircraft, hovercraft, spacecraft, 当指学科时用-s:Arts and crafts are part of the curriculum. 表国籍的词 表示国籍的一些词,如Chinese, Swiss, Vietnamese,单复相同。 (8) 外来词 外来词往往有两种复数形式,一般来说,英语本族语者常用符合英语拼写和语音的形式,只在科技上下文中才用外来形式。 只有英语化的复数形式:album albums, apparatus apparatuses, genius geniuses。 两种复数形式都有的:cactus cacti/cactuses
25、; antenna antennae/antennas; index indices/indexes; appendix appendices/appendixes; medium media/mediums; automaton automata/automatons; adieu adieux/adieus; plateau plateaus/plateaux。单复数的意义可能不一样。 只有外来词复数形式的:alumnus alumni; alumna alumnae; stratum strata; analysis analyses; criterion criteria。 Media
26、后用单复数动词都表示报纸、电视等。Data单复数动词都可用。 Agenda是外来复数,但在英语中以单数对待,另有一个复数形式agendas。 有的外来词单复数相同,但作复数时发音要加一个/z/:如chamois /箖 鎚wa/(单),/箖 鎚waz/ (复)。 (9) 字母、年代、缩写词的复数用s: Watch your ps and qs. the 1790s 或 1790s MPs (Members of Parliament) (10) 复合词的复数 一般的做法 名词与名词合成的词一般将复数形式加在最后一个单词上,如boyfriends, flower shops, matchboxes
27、;把复数形式加在名词上,如onlookers, lookers-on, passers-by; 没有名词时放在最后一个词上,如breakdowns, forget-me-nots, grown-ups, lay-offs。 放在第一个词上 attorney general attorneys general; court-martial courts-martial; man-of-war men-of-war; mother-in-law mothers-in-law (但in-laws,表泛指), notary public notaries public; spoonful spoons
28、ful (或spoonfuls)。 前后两个都用 man student men students; woman student women students。(但lady friend lady friends; man-eaters; manholes; woman-haters)。 3) 从意义的角度认识名词的数 从意义的角度看,有的单数形式的名词可具有多数的意义,这时与它构成语法关系的词如果有单复数形式要求的话,就要根据其意义来与它一致,如集体名词。 (1) 集体名词 有的集体名词,如audience, class, club, committee, company, congrega
29、tion, council, crew, crowd, family, gang, government, group, jury, mob, staff, team, union等,在被当作一个整体看待时,就是单数的意义,代词用which和it等,相关的词语就用单数的形式: The present government, which hasnt been in power long, is trying to control inflation. It isnt having much success. 当其作为组成集体的个体成员看待时,就是复数意义,代词用who和they等,相关的词语就用
30、复数形式: The government, who are looking for a quick victory, are calling for a general election soon. They expect to be re-elected. A lot of people are giving them their support. 代表球队的专有名词,从意义上说既可视为单数也可视为复数: Arsenal is/are playing away on Saturdays. 集体名词视为单数还是复数,完全取决于说话人心目中的所指,或它在上下文中的所指。 Give the pub
31、lic what it wants/ they want. Her offspring is like her in every respect. (one child) Her offspring are like her in respect. (more than one child) 有的集体名词只能当作复数看待,如cattle, the clergy, the military, people, the police, swine, vermin: Some people are never satisfied. (2) 以复数形式出现的词 ews、一些游戏名称和城市名称视为单数意义
32、的词 The news on TV is always depressing. Billiards is becoming more and more popular. Athens has grown rapidly in the past decade. -ics结尾的词依据实际情况视为单数或复数 以-ics结尾的词,如athletics, gymnastics, linguistics, mathematics, physics等,指学科时视为单数,当其指跟学科有关的对象时用复数: Acoustics is a branch of physics. The acoustics in th
33、e Festival Hall are extremely good. 疾病名称一般视为单数,但有的也可视为复数: German measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women. Mumps are / is fairly rare in adults. 有的词如果视为一个单位为单数,如果视为一个以上的个体为复数 This species of rose is very rare. There are thousands of species of butterflies. 其他的还有barracks, bellows, crossroads
34、, gallows, gasworks, headquarters, kennels, series, works等。 means这个词取决于它的修饰语 All means have been used to get him to change his mind. One means is still to be tried. 只能视为复数的 My trousers are torn. 此类词还有:Antipodes, belongings, brains, clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods, greens, lodgings, looks,
35、means (= money or material possessions), oats, odds, outskirts, suds, surroundings, thanks, tropics. 有的词单复数形式在意义上有差异。 One small step for man; one giant leap for mankind. You can only reach that cupboard with a pair of steps. 同类的词还有:air/airs, ash/ashes, content/contents, custom/customs, damage/damage
36、s, drawer/drawers, fund/funds, glass/glasses, look/looks, manner/manners, minute/minutes, pain/pains, scale/scales, saving/savings, spectacle/spectacles,等。 4名词的格 英语的名词属格一般采取两种形式:-s属格和of-属格。例如Shakespeares plays和the plays of Shakespeare, 前者为-s属格,后者为of-属格。-s属格可以表示: 1.所有关系 Mr Browns suitcase (相当于Mr Brow
37、n has a suitcase) 2.主谓关系 Dr Smiths answer (相当于Dr Smith answered ) the students application (相当于the student applied) my fathers departure (相当于my father departed) 3.动宾关系 the boys punishment (相当于punished the boy) Napoleons defeat (相当于defeated Napoleon) 4.事物的来源 Pats letter (相当于letter from Pat) The girls
38、 story (相当于story told by the girl) 5.事物的类别 gents clothes (相当于clothes for the gents) womens magazines (相当于magazines for women) 6.其它意义 a winters day (相当于a day in winter) three days absence (相当于the absence lasted three days) of-属格的意义和用法于-s属格有许多相似之处。例如of-属格也可表示所有关系: the trunk of an elephant=an elephants
39、 trunk the foreign policy of China=Chinas foreign policy 表示主谓关系: the arrival of the prime minister (相当于The prime minister arrived) the claim of the buyers (相当于The buyers claimed) 表示动宾关系: the occupation of the Island (相当于occupied the Island) our hatred of (for, against) the enemy (相当于We hate the enem
40、y) 表示事物的来源: the comedies of Moliere (相当于the comedies written by Moliere) the laws of Newton (相当于the laws discovered by Newton) 但是of-属格在用法上又不能和-s属格完全等同起来。例如当-s属格用来表示事物类别或属性时,就不可用of-属格来替代:“儿童画报”应该是childrens pictorial, 而不是pictorial of children; “博士学位”应该是a doctors degree而不是the degree of a doctor。在某些习语中如
41、at ones wits end,at the swords points, a hairs breadth, a wolf in sheeps clothing, in lifes struggle, in ones minds eye, to ones hearts content等也只能用-s属格而不用of-属格。但在有些结构中却只能用of-属格而不用-s属格,例如the opinion of the chairman appointed a month ago, the suggestion of those present at the meeting, the income of
42、the rich, the struggle of the exploited等。又of-属格能表示同位关系如(the city of New York), 而 -s属格通常不这样用。 练习 1.The assignment for Thursday is to write _composition about your hometown. a)a five-hundred-words b)a five-hundred-word c)a five-hundreds-word d)a five-hundreds-words 2.Miss Black is a friend of _. a)Marys mothers b)Mothers of Mary c)Marys mother d)Mary mothers 3.Sending _“special delivery” costs about fifteen time as much