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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上CHAPTER 9INCOME AND SPENDINGSolutions to the Problems in the Textbook:Conceptual Problems:1. In the Keynesian model, the price level is assumed to be fixed, that is, the AS-curve is horizontal and the level of output is determined solely by aggregate demand. The classical model, on the
2、other hand, assumes that prices always fully adjust to maintain a full-employment level of output, that is, the AS-curve is vertical. Since the model of income determination in this chapter assumes that the price level is fixed, it is a Keynesian model.2. An autonomous variables value is determined
3、outside of a given model. In this chapter the following components of aggregate demand have been specified as being autonomous: autonomous consumption (C*) autonomous investment (Io), government purchases (Go), lump sum taxes (TAo), transfer payments (TRo), and net exports (NXo).3. Since it often ta
4、kes a long time for policy makers to agree on a specific fiscal policy measure, it is quite possible that economic conditions may drastically change before a fiscal policy measure is implemented. In these circumstances a policy measure can actually be destabilizing. Maybe the economy has already beg
5、un to move out of a recession before policy makers have agreed to implement a tax cut. If the tax cut is enacted at a time when the economy is already beginning to experience strong growth, inflationary pressure can be created. While such internal lags are absent with automatic stabilizers (income t
6、axes, unemployment benefits, welfare), these automatic stabilizers are not sufficient to replace active fiscal policy when the economy enters a deep recession.4.Income taxes, unemployment benefits, and the welfare system are often called automatic stabilizers since they automatically reduce the amou
7、nt by which output changes as a result of a change in aggregate demand. These stabilizers are a part of the economic mechanism and therefore work without any case-by-case government intervention. For example, when output declines and unemployment increases, there may be an increase in the number of
8、people who fall below the poverty line. If we had no welfare system or unemployment benefits, then consumption would drop significantly. But since unemployed workers get unemployment compensation and people living in poverty are eligible for welfare payments, consumption will not decrease as much. T
9、herefore, aggregate demand may not be reduced by as much as it would have without these automatic stabilizers.5.The full-employment budget surplus is the budget surplus that would exist if the economy were at the full-employment level of output, given the current spending or tax structure. Since the
10、 size of the full-employment budget surplus does not depend on the position in the business cycle and only changes when the government implements a fiscal policy change, the full-employment budget surplus can be used as a measure of fiscal policy. Other names for the full-employment budget surplus a
11、re the structural budget surplus, the cyclically adjusted surplus, the high-employment surplus, and the standardized employment surplus. These names may be preferable, since they do not suggest that there is a specific full-employment level of output that we were unable to maintain.Technical Problem
12、s:1.a. AD = C + I = 100 + (0.8)Y + 50 = 150 + (0.8)Y The equilibrium condition is Y = AD = Y = 150 + (0.8)Y = (0.2)Y = 150 = Y = 5*150 = 750.1.b. Since TA = TR = 0, it follows that S = YD - C = Y - C. Therefore S = Y - 100 + (0.8)Y = - 100 + (0.2)Y = S = - 100 + (0.2)750 = - 100 + 150 = 50.1.c. If t
13、he level of output is Y = 800, then AD = 150 + (0.8)800 = 150 + 640 = 790. Therefore the amount of involuntary inventory accumulation is UI = Y - AD = 800 - 790 = 10.1.d. AD = C + I = 100 + (0.8)Y + 100 = 200 + (0.8)Y From Y = AD = Y = 200 + (0.8)Y = (0.2)Y = 200 = Y = 5*200 = 1,000 Note: This resul
14、t can also be achieved by using the multiplier formula: DY = (multiplier)(DSp) = (multiplier)(DI) = DY = 5*50 = 250, that is, output increases from Yo = 750 to Y1 = 1,000.1.e. From 1.a. and 1.d. we can see that the multiplier is 5. 1.f. Sp Y = Sp AD1 = 200 = (0.8)Y ADo = 150 + (0.8)Y 200 150 0 750 1
15、,000Y2.a. Since the mpc has increased from 0.8 to 0.9, the size of the multiplier is now larger and we should therefore expect a higher equilibrium income level than in 1.a. AD = C + I = 100 + (0.9)Y + 50 = 150 + (0.9)Y = Y = AD = Y = 150 + (0.9)Y = (0.1)Y = 150 = Y = 10*150 = 1,500.2.b. From DY = (
16、multiplier)(DI) = 10*50 = 500 = Y1 = Yo + DY = 1,500 + 500 = 2,000.2.c. Since the size of the multiplier has doubled from 5 to 10, the change in output (Y) that results from a change in investment (I) now has also doubled from 250 to 500. 2.d. Sp Y = Sp AD1 = 200 = (0.9)Y ADo = 150 + (0.9)Y 200 150
17、0 1,500 2,000Y3.a. AD = C + I + G + NX = 50 + (0.8)YD + 70 + 200 = 320 + (0.8)Y - (0.2)Y + 100 = 400 + (0.8)(0.8)Y = 400 + (0.64)Y From Y = AD = Y = 400 + (0.64)Y = (0.36)Y = 400 = Y = (1/0.36)400 = (2.78)400 = 1,111.11 The size of the multiplier is (1/0.36) = 2.78.3.b. BS = tY - TR - G = (0.2)(1,11
18、1.11) - 100 - 200 = 222.22 - 300 = - 77.783.c. AD = 320 + (0.8)Y - (0.25)Y + 100 = 400 + (0.8)(0.75)Y = 400 + (0.6)Y From Y = AD = Y = 400 + (0.6)Y = (0.4)Y = 400 = Y = (2.5)400 = 1,000 The size of the multiplier is now reduced to 2.5.3.d. BS = (0.25)(1,000) - 100 - 200 = - 50 BS - BS = - 50 - (-77.
19、78) = + 27.78 The size of the multiplier and equilibrium output will both increase with an increase in the marginal propensity to consume. Therefore income tax revenue will also go up and the budget surplus should increase.3.e. If the income tax rate is t = 1, then all income is taxed. There is no i
20、nduced spending and equilibrium income only increases by the change in autonomous spending, that is, the size of the multiplier is 1. From Y = C + I + G = Y = Co + c(Y - 1Y + TRo) + Io + Go = Y = Co + cTRo + Io + Go = Ao4. In Problem 3.d. we had a situation where the following was given: Y = 1,000,
21、t = 0.25, G = 200 and BS = - 50. Assume now that t = 0.3 and G = 250 = AD = 50 + (0.8)Y - (0.3)Y + 100 + 70 + 250 = 370 + (0.8)(0.7)Y + 80 = 450 + (0.56)Y. From Y = AD = Y = 450 + (0.56)Y = (0.44)Y = 450 = Y = (1/0.44)450 = 1,022.73 BS = (0.3)(1,022.73) - 100 - 250 = 306.82 - 350 = - 43.18 BS - BS =
22、 -43.18 - (-50) = + 6.82 The budget surplus has increased, since the increase in tax revenue is larger than the increase in government purchases.5.a. While an increase in government purchases by DG = 10 will change intended spending by DSp = 10, a decrease in government transfers by DTR = -10 will c
23、hange intended spending by a smaller amount, that is, by only DSp = c(DTR) = c(-10). The change in intended spending equals DSp = (1 - c)(10) and equilibrium income should therefore increase by DY = (multiplier)(1 - c)10.5.b. If c = 0.8 and t = 0.25, then the size of the multiplier is a = 1/1 - c(1
24、- t) = 1/1 - (0.8)(1 - 0.25) = 1/1 - (0.6) = 1/(0.4) = 2.5. The change in equilibrium income is DY = a(DAo) = aDG + c(DTR) = (2.5)10 + (0.8)(-10) = (2.5)2 = 55.c. DBS = t(DY) - DTR - DG = (0.25)(5) - (-10) - 10 = 1.25Additional Problems:1. An increase in the marginal propensity to save increases the
25、 impact of one additional dollar in income on consumption. Comment on this statement. In your answer discuss the effect of such a change in the mps on the size of the expenditure multiplier.The fact that the marginal propensity to save (1 - c) has risen implies that the marginal propensity to consum
26、e (c) has fallen. This means that now one extra dollar in income earned will affect consumption by less than before the reduction in the mpc. When the mpc is high, one extra dollar in income raises consumption by more than when the mpc is low. If the mps is larger, then the expenditure multiplier wi
27、ll be larger, since the expenditure multiplier is defined as 1/(1-c).2. Using a simple model of the expenditure sector without any government involvement, explain the paradox of thrift that asserts that a desire to save may not lead to an increase in actual saving. The paradox of thrift occurs becau
28、se the desire to increase saving leads to a lower consumption level. But a lower level of spending sends the economy into a recession and we get a new equilibrium at a lower level of output. In the end, the increase in autonomous saving is exactly offset by the decrease in induced saving due to the
29、lower income level. In other words, the economy is in equilibrium when S = Io. Since the level of autonomous investment (Io) has not changed, the level of saving at the new equilibrium income level must also equal Io. This can also be derived mathematically. Since an increase in desired saving is eq
30、uivalent to a decrease in desired consumption, that is, DCo = -DSo, the effect on equilibrium income is DY = 1/(1 - c)(DCo) = 1/(1 - c)(-DSo).Therefore the overall effect on total saving isDS = s(DY) + DSo = s/(1 - c)(-DSo) + DSo = 0, since s = 1 - c.3.When aggregate demand falls below the current o
31、utput level, an unintended inventory accumulation occurs and the economy is no longer in an equilibrium. Comment on this statement.If aggregate demand falls below the equilibrium output level, production exceeds desired spending. When firms see an unwanted accumulation in their inventories, they res
32、pond by reducing production. The level of output falls and eventually reaches a level at which total output equals desired spending. In other words, the economy eventually reaches a new equilibrium at a lower value of output.4.For a simple model of the expenditure sector without any government invol
33、vement, derive the multiplier in terms of the marginal propensity to save (s) rather than the marginal propensity to consume (c). Does this formula still hold when the government enters the picture and levies an income tax?In the text, the expenditure multiplier for a model without any government in
34、volvement was derived as a = 1/(1 - c).But since the marginal propensity to save is s = 1 - c, the multiplier now becomes a = 1/s = 1/(1-c).In the text, we have also seen that if the government enters the picture and levies an income tax, then the simple expenditure multiplier changes to a = 1/1 - c
35、(1 - t) = 1/(1 - c).By substituting s = 1 - c, this equation can be easily manipulated, to geta = 1/1 - c + ct = 1/s + (1 - s)t = 1/s.Just as s = 1 c, we can say that s = 1 - c, since s = 1 - c = 1 - c(1 - t) = 1 - c + ct = s + (1 - s)t.This can also be derived in another way:S = YD - C = YD - (C* +
36、 cYD) = - C* + (1 - c)YD = - C* + sYDIf we assume for simplicity that TR = 0 and NX = 0, thenS + TA = I + G = - C* + sYD + TA = I* + G* =s(Y - tY - TA*) + tY + TA* = C* + I* + G* =s + (1 - s)tY = C* + I* + G* - (1 - s)TA* = A* =Y = (1/s + (1 - s)t)A* = (1/s)A*.5. The balanced budget theorem states t
37、hat the government can stimulate the economy without increasing the budget deficit if an increase in government purchases (G) is financed by an equivalent increase in taxes (TA). Show that this is true for a simple model of the expenditure sector without any income taxes. If taxes and government pur
38、chases are increased by the same amount, then the change in the budget surplus can be calculated as DBS = DTAo - DG = 0, since DTAo = DG.The resulting change in national income isDY = DC + DG = c(DYD) + DG = c(DY - DTAo) + DG = c(DY) - c(DTAo) + DG = c(DY) + (1 - c)(DG) since DTAo = DG. = (1 - c)(DY
39、) = (1 - c)(DG) = DY = DGIn this case, the increase in output (Y) is exactly of the same magnitude as the increase in government purchases (G). This occurs since the decrease in the level of consumption due to the higher lump sum tax has exactly been offset by the increase in the level of consumptio
40、n caused by the increase in income.6.Assume a model without income taxes and in which the only two components of aggregate demand are consumption and investment. Show that, in this case, the two equilibrium conditions Y = C + I and S = I are equivalent.We can derive the equilibrium value of output b
41、y setting actual income equal to intended spending, that is,Y = C + I = Y = C* + cY + I* = (1 - c)Y = C* + I* = Y = 1/(1 - c)(C* + I*) = 1/(1 - c)A*.But since S = YD - C = Y - C* + cY = - C* + (1 - c)Y,we can derive the same result from S = I* = S = - C* + (1 - c)Y = I* = (1 - c)Y = C* + I* = Y = 1/
42、(1 - c)(C* + I*) = 1/(1 - c)A* .7. In an effort to stimulate the economy in 1976, President Ford asked Congress for a $20 billion tax cut in combination with a $20 billion cut in government purchases. Do you consider this a good policy proposal? Why or why not? This is not a good policy proposal. Ac
43、cording to the balanced budget theorem, equal decreases in government purchases and taxes will decrease rather than increase income. Therefore the intended result would not be achieved.8. Assume the following model of the expenditure sector: Sp = C + I + G + NX C = 420 + (4/5)YD YD = Y - TA + TR TA
44、= (1/6)Y TRo = 180 Io = 160 Go = 100 NXo = - 40(a) Assume the government would like to increase the equilibrium level of income (Y) to the full-employment level Y* = 2,700. By how much should government purchases (G) be changed?(b) Assume we want to reach Y* = 2,700 by changing government transfer p
45、ayments (TR) instead. By how much should TR be changed?(c) Assume you increase both government purchases (G) and taxes (TA) by the same lump sum of DG = DTAo = + 300. Would this change in fiscal policy be sufficient to reach the full-employment level of output at Y* = 2,700? Why or why not?(d) Briefly explain how a decrease in the marginal propensity to save would affect the size of the expenditure multiplier.a.Sp = C + I + G + NX = 420 + (4/5)Y - (1/6)Y + 100 + 160 + 180 - 40 = 720 + (4/5)(5/6)