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1、外文资料翻译High-Rise BuildingsIntroductionIt is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more .Although the basic principles of vertical and horizont
2、al subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystemsbecome a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment
3、 and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .The vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these
4、same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at
5、the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal. Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almo
6、st an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily oneof shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“ short ” buildieasily be provided by filling certain panels or even all panels wit
7、hout increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is forhigh-rise buildings because the problem is primarilyresistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made an
8、d additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high- rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a h
9、igh-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , willneed to be strengthened over the fullheight of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is ev
10、en more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of8 / 8stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lat
11、eral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the
12、 case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire in economy .1. Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is ve
13、ry useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitably connected to actually gai
14、n this benefit.2. Design subsystemssuch that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficientlystressed , place reinforcingforwalls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames .3. Increas
15、e the material in the most effective resisting components . For example , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the eart
16、hquake problem is aggravated .4. Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressingthe major overturn-resisting components .5. The local shear
17、in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement ifsolid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girde
18、rs will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6. Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor . This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7. Create mega-frames by joining large verti
19、cal and horizontal components such as two or more elevator shafts at multistory intervals with a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles ar
20、e judiciouslyapplied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength andrigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wal
21、l SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as
22、shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral
23、 load only the plane of the walls i.e.not in adiretion perpendicular to them . There fore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout s
24、hould reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that willresist lateral forces very efficiently .If all extern
25、al shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as tube , and connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Seystems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type withopenings when necessary
26、, steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “ X” diagona,lsor “ K”anrrgements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitationpo
27、int of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for wiondows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevat
28、or , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section , they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube stru
29、ctural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction,special steelreinforcements areplacedaroundsuch opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigi
30、d connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystem
31、s be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building .They are employed for low-and medium means f
32、or designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames both within and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required
33、 for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigidframes willnot be as stiffas shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slend
34、er high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility, they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with some shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid fram
35、e i.e.,near the joint , ductility will allow the structureas a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered bysome to be a “ best ” seis-mreiscisting type for
36、high-rise steel buildings .On the other hand ,it is also unlikelythat a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to prod
37、uce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces . therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experien
38、ce has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so- called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive r
39、einforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties；Even so , concrete frame design can be botheffective and economical；Of course , it is also possible to combine rigid-frame construction with shear-wall systems in one buildings ，For example
40、, the buildings geometry may be such that rigid frames can be used in one direction while shear walls may be used in the other direction；SummaryAbove states is the high-rise construction ordinariest structural style. In the design process, should the economy practical choose the reasonable form as f
41、ar as possible.外文资料翻译 译文）高层建筑前 沿高层建筑的定义很难确定；可以说2-3层的建筑物为底层建筑，而从3-4层地 10 层或 20 层的建筑物为中层建筑，高层建筑至少为10 层或者更多；尽管在原理上，高层建筑的竖向和水平构件的设计同低层及多层建筑的设计没什么区分，但使竖向构件的设计成为高层设计有两个掌握性的因素：首 先，高层建筑需要较大的柱体、墙体和井筒；更重要的是侧向里所产生的倾覆力矩和剪力变形要大的多，必要谨慎设计来保证；高层建筑的竖向构件从上到下逐层对累积的重力和荷载进行传递，这就要有较大尺寸的墙体或者柱体来进行承载；同时，这些构件仍要将风荷载及地震荷载等侧向荷载
42、传给基础；但是，侧向荷载的分布不同于竖向荷载，它们是非线性的，并且沿着建筑物高度的增加而快速地增加；例如，在其他条件都相同时，风荷载在建筑物底部引起的倾覆力矩随建筑物高度近似地成平方规律变 化，而在顶部的侧向位移与其高度的四次方成正比；地震荷载的效应更为明 显；对于低层和多层建筑物设计只需考虑恒荷载和部分动荷载时，建筑物的柱、墙、楼梯或电梯等就自然能承担大部分水平力；所考虑的问题主要是抗剪问题；对于现代的钢架系统支撑设计，如无特别承载需要，无需加大柱和梁的尺寸，而通过增加板就可以实现；不幸的是，对于高层建筑第一要解决的不仅仅是抗剪问题，仍有抗击力矩和抗击变形问题；高层建筑中的柱、梁、墙及板等常
43、常需要采纳特别的结构布置和特别的材料，以抗击相当高的侧向荷载以及变形；如前所述，在高层建筑中每平方英尺建筑面积结构材料的用量要高于低层建筑；支撑重力荷载的竖向构件，如墙、柱及井筒，在沿建筑物整个高度方向上都应予以加强；用于抗击侧向荷载的材料要求更多；对于钢筋混凝土建筑，虽着建筑物层数的增加，对材料的要求也随着增加；应当留意的是，因混凝土材料的质量增加而带来的建筑物自重增加，要比钢结构增加得多，而为抗击风荷载的才能而增加的材料用量却不是呢么多，由于混凝土自身的重量可以抗击倾覆力矩；不过不利的一面是混凝土建筑自重的增加，将会加大抗震设计的难度；在地震荷载作用下，顶部质量的增加将会使侧向荷载剧增；无
44、论对于混凝土结构设计，仍是对于钢结构设计，下面这些基本的原就都有助于在不需要增加太多成本的前提下增强建筑物抗击侧向荷载的才能；1. 增加抗弯构件的有效宽度；由于当其他条件不变时能够直接减小扭矩，并以宽度增量的三次幂形式减小变形，因此这一措施特别有 效；但是必需保证加宽后的竖向承重构件特别有效地连接；2. 在设计构件时，尽可能有效地使其加强相互作用力；例如，可以采用具有有效应力状态的弦杆和桁架体系；也可在墙的关键位置加置钢筋；以及最优化钢架的刚度比等措施；3. 增加最有效的抗弯构件的截面；例如，增加较低层柱以及连接大梁的翼缘截面，将可直接削减侧向位移和增加抗弯才能，而不会加大上层楼面的质量，否就
45、，地震问题将更加严峻；4. 通过设计使大部分竖向荷载，直接作用于主要的抗弯构件；这样通过预压主要的抗倾覆构件，可以使建筑物在倾覆拉力的作用下保持稳固；5. 通过合理地放置实心墙体及在竖向构件中使用斜撑构件，可以有效地抗击每层的局部剪力；但仅仅通过竖向构件进行抗剪是不经济 的，由于使柱及梁有足够的抗弯才能，比用墙或斜撑需要更多材料和施工工作量；6. 每层应加设充分的水平隔板；这样就会使各种抗力构件更好地在一起工作，而不是单独工作；7. 在中间转换层通过大型竖向和水平构件及重楼板形成大框架，或者采纳深梁体系；应当留意的是，全部高层建筑的本质都是地面支撑的悬臂结构；如何合理地运用上面所提到的原就，就
46、可以利用合理地布置墙体、核心筒、框架、筒式结构和其他竖向结构分体系，使建筑物取得足够的水平承载力和刚度；本文后面将对这些原理的应用做介绍；剪力墙结构在能够满意其他功能需求时，高层建筑中采纳剪力墙可以经济地进行高层建筑的抗侧向荷载设计；例如，住宅楼需要许多隔墙，假如这些隔墙都设计为 实例的，那么他们可以起到剪力墙的作用，既能抗击侧向荷载，又能承担竖向 荷载；对于 20 层以上的建筑物，剪力墙极为常见；假如给与足够的宽度，剪力墙能够有效地抗击 30-40 层甚至更多的侧向荷载；但是，剪力墙只能抗击平行于墙平面的荷载也就是说不能抗击垂直于墙的荷载）；因此有必要常常在两个相互垂直的方向设置剪力墙，或者
47、在尽可能多的方向布置，以用来抗击各个方向的侧向荷载；并且，墙体设计仍应考虑扭转的问题；在设计过程中，两片或者更多的剪力墙会布置成L 型或者槽形；实际上，四片内剪力墙可以被联结成矩形，以更有效地抗击侧向荷载；假如全部外部剪力墙都连接起来，整个建筑物就像是一个筒体，将会具有很强的抗击水平荷载和抗击扭矩的才能；通常混凝土就剪力墙都是实体的，并在有要求时开洞，而钢筋剪力墙常常是做成桁架式；这些桁架上可能布置成蛋单斜撑、X 斜撑及 K 斜撑；在侧向力作用下这些桁架的组合构件受到或拉或压力；从强度和变形掌握角度来说，桁架有着很好的功效，并且管道可以在构件之间穿过；当然，钢桁架墙的斜向构件在墙体上要正确放置
48、，以免阻碍开窗、循环以及管道穿墙；如上所述，电梯强、楼梯间及设备竖井都可以形成筒状体，常常用它们既抗击竖向荷载又抗击水平荷载；这些筒的横断面一般驶矩形或圆形，由于筒结构作用，筒状结构能够有效地进行各个方向上的抗弯和抗剪；不过在这样的结构设计中存在的问题是，如何保证在门洞口和其他孔洞的强度；对于钢筋混凝土结构，通过使用特别的钢筋配置在这些孔洞的四周；对于钢剪力墙，就要求在开洞处加强节点连接，以抗击洞口变形；对于许多高层建筑，假如墙体和筒架进行合理地支配与连接，会起到很好的抗击侧向荷载的作用；仍要求由这些结构分体系供应的刚度在各个方向上应大体对称；框架结构在建筑物结构设计中，用于抗击竖向和水平荷载的框架结构，常作为一个重要且标准的型式而被采纳；它适用于低层、多层建筑物，亦可用于70-100 层高的高层建筑物；同剪力墙结构相比，这种结构更适合在建筑物的内部或者外围的墙体上开设矩形孔洞；同时它仍能充分利用建筑物内在任何情形下都要采纳的梁和柱的刚度，但当柱子与梁刚性连接时，通过框架受弯来抗击水平和竖向荷载会使这些柱子的承载才能变得更大；大多情形下，框架的刚度不如剪力墙，因此对于瘦长的建筑物将会显现过度变形；但正是由于其柔性，使得其与剪力墙结构相比具有更大的延性，因而地震荷载下不易发生事故；例如，假如框架局部显现超应力时，那么其延性