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1、二 十 四 谬 误 中 英 对 照精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 1 页，共 15 页 - - - - - - - - - - 第一部分 考试范围内本次考试考第一部分列举的前15 个。后面第二部分列举的仅供以后学习参考。(一)了解基本逻辑，避免常见错误要了解基本逻辑错误一定不能错过一篇英文小品文Love Is A Fallacy( 作者 Max Shulman) ，这里仅列举出十种最常见的逻辑错误。1.草率前提 (Dicto Simpliciter) 例如：Women are on ave
2、rage not as strong as men and less able to perform well politically. Therefore, women cant pull their weight in government work. 点评：虽然女性确实在政界担任较少工作，但这不意味着女性群体中所有的人都是这样。2.过度概化 (Hasty Generalization) 例如：McDonalds and KFC offer foods with little nutrition, and thus we cannot expect any fast food restau
3、rant to provide us with nutritious foods. 精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 2 页，共 15 页 - - - - - - - - - - 点评：两个个例不足以推出一个真理。3.因果颠倒 (Post Hoc) 例如：Most young criminals watch violent movies before they commit their crimes; obviously, violent movies lead to juvenile de
4、linquency. 点评：甲事情发生在乙事情之前，这并不代表着先发生的甲事情就是后发生的乙事情的原因。4.矛盾前提 (Contradictory Premises) 例如：If God can do everything, can he make a stone so heavy that he cant carry? 点评：前提条件中就有相互矛盾的地方，结论当然是错误的。5.感性论证 (Ad Misericordiam) 精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 3 页，共 15 页 - - -
5、 - - - - - - - 例如：Think of all the poor, starving African children! How could rich countries be so cruel as not to help them? 点评：抒情是不能当作论证的。6.错误类比 (False Analogy) 例如：Young children are like flowers-flowers should stay away from terrible weather to grow, so children need to get rid of everything nega
6、tive. 点评：孩子和花朵的区别太大。成长的过程也太复杂。最好不要用这两者来类比。7.虚假假设 (Hypothesis Contrary to Fact) 例如：If TV were not invented, today people would never have such wonderful entertainment brought by TV. 点评：因为电视已经被发明了，对于过去的否定假设后所得出的结论都是逻辑上的错误结论。精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 4 页，共 15
7、页 - - - - - - - - - - 8.无关转移 (Red Herring) 例如：Many people say we need to exploit the outer space, a point which I believe is wrong, because there are so many poor people on Earth who hardly make ends meet. 点评：有一个问题没解决并不代表着另一个问题不值得解决。9.从众错误 (Bandwagon) 例如：Everyone says it is justified to learn a seco
8、nd language so we must learn one. 点评：人人都说，或者大多数都说，这并不意味着该观点正确。10.滑坡谬误 (Slippery slope) 例如：If we dont care about the environment, the world will die in 50 years. 精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 5 页，共 15 页 - - - - - - - - - - 点评：从环境问题到世界灭亡，中间有无数环节未提供论证。Examples of
9、Slippery Slope 1. We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, theyll be charging $40,000 a semester! 2. The US shouldnt get involved militarily in other countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to die. 3. You can never give anyone a brea
10、k. If you do, theyll walk all over you. 4. Weve got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next thing you know, they will be burning all the books! 11. appeal to emotionYou attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of
11、 a valid or compelling argument.Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. Its important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or have an emotional aspect, but the problem and fallacy occurs when emotion is used instead of a lo
12、gical argument, or to obscure the fact that no compelling rational reason exists for ones position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is affected by emotion, and so appeals to emotion are a very common and effective argument tactic, but theyre ultimately flawed, dishonest, and tend to make ones opponents ju
13、stifiably emotional. Example: Luke didnt want to eat his sheeps brains with chopped liver and brussel sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world country who werent fortunate enough to have any food at all.12 . ad hominem ,personal attack 人身攻击You atta
14、cked your opponents character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their argument. The result of an ad hom attack c
15、an be to undermine someones case without actually having to engage with it. 精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 6 页，共 15 页 - - - - - - - - - - Example: After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience wh
16、ether we should believe anything from a woman who isnt married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.第七条：诉诸虚伪13. loaded question 含沙射影You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldnt be answered without appearing guilty.Loaded question fallacies are particularly effec
17、tive at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot. Example: Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot
18、, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems with a drug habit. 14 . appeal to authority诉诸权威You said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.Its important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or sci
19、entific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding and/or access to empirical evidence. However it is, entirely possible that the opini
20、on of a person or institution of authority is wrong; therefore the authority that such a person or institution holds does not have any intrinsic bearing upon whether their claims are true or not. Example: Not able to defend his position that evolution isnt true Bob says that he knows a scientist who
21、 also questions evolution (and presumably isnt a primate). 15 窃取论点 . begging the questionYou presented a circular argument in which the conclusion was included in the premise.This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and the
22、refore taken in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because its not very good. Example: The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbos Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and Should
23、 Not Ever Be Questioned.精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 7 页，共 15 页 - - - - - - - - - - 第二部分 以下完整版留着资料用。第一条：稻草人1. strawman/straw manYou misrepresented someones argument to make it easier to attack.By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just completely fabricating so
24、meones argument, its much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty serves to undermine honest rational debate. Example: After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hate
25、s our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending. 第二条：错误归因2. false causeYou presumed that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for ca
26、usation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes correlation is coincidental, or it may be attributable to a common cause. Example: Pointing to a fancy chart, Roger shows how temperatures have been rising over the past few centuries, whilst at the same time the numbers of pira
27、tes have been decreasing; thus pirates cool the world and global warming is a hoax.第三条：诉诸感情3. appeal to emotionYou attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. Its important t
28、o note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or have an emotional aspect, but the problem and fallacy occurs when emotion is used instead of a logical argument, or to obscure the fact that no compelling rational reason exists for ones position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is
29、 affected by emotion, and so appeals to emotion are a very common and effective argument tactic, but theyre ultimately flawed, dishonest, and tend to make ones opponents justifiably emotional. Example: Luke didnt want to eat his sheeps brains with chopped liver and brussel sprouts, but his father to
30、ld him to think about the poor, starving 精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 8 页，共 15 页 - - - - - - - - - - children in a third world country who werent fortunate enough to have any food at all.第四条：谬误谬误4. the fallacy fallacyYou presumed that because a claim has been
31、poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made, that the claim itself must be wrong.It is entirely possible to make a claim that is false yet argue with logical coherency for that claim, just as is possible to make a claim that is true and justify it with various fallacies and poor arguments. Example: Re
32、cognising that Amanda had committed a fallacy in arguing that we should eat healthy food because a nutritionist said it was popular, Alyse said we should therefore eat bacon double cheeseburgers every day.第五条：滑坡谬误5. slippery slopeYou said that if we allow A to happen, then Z will eventually happen t
33、oo, therefore A should not happen.The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to extreme hypotheticals. Because no proof is presented to show that such extreme hypotheticals will in fact occur, this fallacy has the form of an appeal
34、 to emotion fallacy by leveraging fear. In effect the argument at hand is unfairly tainted by unsubstantiated conjecture. Example: Colin Closet asserts that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the next thing we know well be allowing people to marry their parents, their cars and even monkeys.
35、第六条：人身攻击6. ad hominem ,personal attackYou attacked your opponents character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit th
36、eir argument. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someones case without actually having to engage with it. Example: After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isnt
37、 married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird7. tuquoque (appeal to hypocrisy)You avoided having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser - you answered criticism with criticism.Pronounced too-kwo-kwee. Literally translating as you too this fallacy is also known as the appeal
38、 to hypocrisy. It is commonly employed as an effective 精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 9 页，共 15 页 - - - - - - - - - - red herring because it takes the heat off someone having to defend their argument, and instead shifts the focus back on to the person making the
39、criticism. Example: Nicole identified that Hannah had committed a logical fallacy, but instead of addressing the substance of her claim, Hannah accused Nicole of committing a fallacy earlier on in the conversation.第八条：个人怀疑8. personal incredulityBecause you found something difficult to understand, or
40、 are unaware of how it works, you made out like its probably not true.Complex subjects like biological evolution through natural selection require some amount of understanding before one is able to make an informed judgement about the subject at hand; this fallacy is usually used in place of that un
41、derstanding. Example: Kirk drew a picture of a fish and a human and with effusive disdain asked Richard if he really thought we were stupid enough to believe that a fish somehow turned into a human through just, like, random things happening over time.第九条：片面谬误9. special pleadingYou moved the goalpos
42、ts or made up an exception when your claim was shown to be false.Humans are funny creatures and have a foolish aversion to being wrong. Rather than appreciate the benefits of being able to change ones mind through better understanding, many will invent ways to cling to old beliefs. One of the most c
43、ommon ways that people do this is to post-rationalize a reason why what they thought to be true must remain to be true. Its usually very easy to find a reason to believe something that suits us, and it requires integrity and genuine honesty with oneself to examine ones own beliefs and motivations wi
44、thout falling into the trap of justifying our existing ways of seeing ourselves and the world around us. Example: Edward Johns claimed to be psychic, but when his abilities were tested under proper scientific conditions, they magically disappeared. Edward explained this saying that one had to have f
45、aith in his abilities for them to work.第十条：诱导性问题 complex questions 10. loaded question You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldnt be answered without appearing guilty.Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of their
46、 inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded 精品资料 - - - 欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - 欢迎下载 名师归纳 - - - - - - - - - -第 10 页，共 15 页 - - - - - - - - - - question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot. Example: Grace and Helen were both romantically interested
47、in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems with a drug habit.第十一条：举证责任11. burden of proofYou said that the burden of proof lies not with the person making the claim, but with someone else to disprove.The burden of proo
48、f lies with someone who is making a claim, and is not upon anyone else to disprove. The inability, or disinclination, to disprove a claim does not render that claim valid, nor give it any credence whatsoever. However it is important to note that we can never be certain of anything, and so we must as
49、sign value to any claim based on the available evidence, and to dismiss something on the basis that it hasnt been proven beyond all doubt is also fallacious reasoning. Example: Bertrand declares that a teapot is, at this very moment, in orbit around the Sun between the Earth and Mars, and that becau
50、se no one can prove him wrong, his claim is therefore a valid one.第十二条：语义模糊12. ambiguityYou used a double meaning or ambiguity of language to mislead or misrepresent the truth.Politicians are often guilty of using ambiguity to mislead and will later point to how they were technically not outright ly