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1、 Designing Schools Space, place and pedagogy - 由扫描全能王扫描创建 First published 2017 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0X14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an tnforma business 2017 selection and editoria
2、l material, Kate Datian-Smith and Julie Willis; individual chapters, the contributors The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Design
3、s and Patents Act 198B. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
4、 permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British IJbrary Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is av
5、ailable from the British Library Lihrary of Congress Catalogn-in-Publication Data Names: Darian-Sinith, Kate, editor. | WiUis, Julict editor. Title: Designing schools : space, place and pedagogy / edited by Kate Darian-Sniith and Julie Willis. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Roudedge, 2
6、017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016013418 | ISBN 9781138886193 (hb :alk. paper) | ISBN 9781138886223 m the Gothic Revival (echoing the traditional origins of schools from their church-based beginnings) through to classicism, Romanesque, Edwardian Baroque and
7、various revivalist styles, such as the neo-Georgian, up until at least the 1 3 s, often reflecting the styles of other, similarly sized public buildings. But regardless of its style, its particular functional requirements made and make a school instantly recognisable within the built environment. As
8、 Barnard put it: The style of the exterior should . be calculated to inspire children and the community. Every school-house should be a temple, consecrated in prayer to the physical, intellectual, and moraJ culture of every child in the community . for here the health, tastes, manners, minds, and mo
9、rals of each successive generation of children will be, in a great measure, determined for time and eternity. (Barnard 1850:41) Barnards comments pointed to the understanding that the school, and the meanings embedded within its architecture, played a critical role m childrens development.This view
10、has been remarkably consistent across almost two centuries: architects have returned repeatedly to the idea that school architecture should actively support children s physical, intellectual and moral gmwth.Thc exterior of the school was not just a facade, projecting a particular ambition for learni
11、ng and social improvement: the design of the school building, inside and out, reflected and shaped its educational aspirations. Architects writing on school design noted the importance of translating the schools pedagogy in its design, so that the building as a whole, and its component parts, could
12、best support the teacher and the curriculum being taught. In this they looked at the internal arrangements of classrooms, the design and position of desks, the line of sight for both teacher and pupil, and the apparatus used in the classroom. In the early part of the twentieth century, the style of
13、the school was also associated with the seniority of the pupils who attended. Architects recommended that architecture for the youngest students at primary or elementary school be simple and pleasing, to facilitate the transition between home and the wider world, whereas those attending secondary sc
14、hools should be exposed to architecture that spoke of their transition into productive citizens.This is seen in the different scales of buildings, firom the intimate spaces of kindergartens and infant schools that often employed domestic references, to the more imposing facades of high schools, with
15、 grand entrances and architectural embellishment. Moving from simpler and smaller buildings into larger and more sophisticated edifices as the school students progressed through their education suggested school as place held an important role in introducing children to and conditioning them for entr
16、y into the adult world (Willis 2014). Increasingly, and in line with modern ideas about pedagogy and child development, the relationship between students and school buildings became more explicit. As Donovan put it, *the child should be the motive for the architecture of. school buildings* (Donovan
17、1921:27). This acknowledgement that the needs of children were at the centre of school design was an expression of the wider social shifts that occurred across the later nineteenth century and into the twentieth century. As compulsory education developed the concept of childhood was correspondingly
18、extended. Most notably, in the second half of the twentieth century, the legal age of leaving school was raised, and the period of formal education was lengthened, delaying 由扫描全能王扫描创建 4 |ulie Willis full engagement with the adult world. Childhood itself was differentiated. In the 1950s the concept o
19、f the teenager emerged, where youth between 13 and 18 were considered to be neither child nor adult but a distinct age group of their own. By the mid-twentieth century, the convergence of ideas about daylight, fresh air, functional spaces and pedagogical principles found a new architectural expressi
20、on for schools in the clean lines of modern architecture. The principles of modern architecture were founded on functional need, resulting in a universal architectural language that eschewed traditional architectural styles and precedent.This fint appeared when architects built social housing pmject
21、s that focused on providing clean, healthy and functional architecture to the masses, embracing new materials, large windows, open planning and access to fresh air (Le Corbusier 1923).The concern for healthy school children found expression in the open-air schools, beginning in Germany in 1904 and s
22、preading quickly to other parts of Europe, Britain and the United States. Johannes Duikers design for the Opettluchschool (open-air school) in Amsterdam of 1930 and Beaudouin & Lods* open-air school at Suresnes, France, 1935-36 (see cover image), exemplified the close connections between modern arch
23、itecture and the desire to create a healthy environment in the school. In California, Richard Neutras design for the Corona Avenue Elementary School of 1935 showed a utilitarian architecture, with large sliding glass doors that encouraged a continuum of the classroom between inside and out. In the U
24、nited States, modernism was rapidly adopted for school building, with so-called finger-plans* (ranges of classrooms opening of a single side of a corridor or breezeway) that allowed for maximum daylight, fresh air and access to the outside, with elevations of unadorned plain-faced brickwork or cemen
25、t render with large windows and no embellishment, such as Marsh, Smith & Powells Roosevelt Elementary School in Santa Monica, CA (1935), and Maynard Lyndon & Eberle Smiths Northville Elementary School in Michigan (1936). Further afield, examples such as the Bruderholz School in Basel, Switzerland, b
26、y Hemann Baur (1939) and Neutral San German Home for Girls School in Puerto Rico (1944) included open-air Classroom patios, (Martin 1952): dedicated externa spaces for each classroom. It was not just the overall form of the school that was changing. Internally, arrangements for the students had chan
27、ged significandy, away from fixed, often shared, desks to individual tables and chairs that could easily be moved and rearranged, along with that of the teacher, enabling flexible and changeable teaching and learning situations and a move from formal and directional * instruction to a classroom . de
28、signed to facilitate the learning process . so arranged and so equipped that pupils can work in groups and freely communicate with each other* (CaudiU 1954:22-3). Ideas about appropriate learning environments for children, the connection between pedagogy and architectural space and the new built exp
29、ression of them had only been realised in relatively few buildings prior to 1945.The conditions in the late 1940s, with rapidly rising numbers of school-aged children coupled with changing legislation, like the Butler Act of 1944 in England and Wales, which enshrined education as a basic provision f
30、or children of aU ages and the responsibility of the state, saw a dramatic demand for new schook. These were to be efficiendy built, well designed and fit for purpose. This boom in school building was not confined to the United Kingdom; it was also evident throughout Europe, the Americas and Austral
31、ia. Post-World War II restrictions of building materials, coupled with new build ing techniques developed during wartime, gave architects both challenges and opportunities to reimagine school designs. This resulted in a period of considerable experimentation, which can be seen in examples such as th
32、e CLASP (Consortium of Local Authorities Special 由扫描全能王扫描创建 Architecture and the school 5 f hfland， r uC UghtWeight timber construction (LTC) school designs in A d the relocatable prefabricated classroom buHdings (Bristol huts) emerging from .purposed acraft factones, whlch allowed for rapid, standa
33、led producdol of new schools. e ucation and large numbers of new schools meant that the image of school was f t t at of a quintessentially modern building - efficient, utilitarian, functional - and centred on the needs of the child. WiUmm CaudiU, of weU-known US school specialist a tects Caudill Row
34、lett Scott, wrote in 1954 of the burning point, in school architecture that had recently occurred, prompted by a series of factors, including changes to city codes governing educational provision. He wrote: The pupil centred approach* insists that school planners should begin with a clear and scient
35、ifically accurate realization of the actual physical and emotional needs of the pupil . . . these needs are to be met for the purpose of helping the pupil to perform at peak efficiency in a school designed to function as a positive and flexible aid in the educational process. (Caudill 1954:17) Space
36、 and shape were seen to provide the new ways of conceiving the school and its students. School was imagined and realised as locus of community; as a progressive social experiment; as space for diverse educational needs; as mass education; as space for student-centred learning; and as a place for fle
37、xible learning. Architects have concerned themselves with many aspects of school design, particularly how to provide what are called weU-tempered, environments, ensuring the school design reflects its pedagogical intent and understanding the important role a school plays in its wider community. It i
38、s the move to a modern child-centred educational model, however, that has wrought the most significant change on the design of school buildings. The modern school does not just provide spaces in which children can be taught. It is a place that actively responds to childrens changing needs and development, and it reflects wider social changes. 由扫描全能王扫描创建